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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 

Water-Supply Paper 365 



GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN 

NEVADA 



BY 



EVERETT CARPENTER 




Monograph 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1915 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 



Water -Supply Paper 365 



GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN 

NEVADA J u 



BY 



EVERETT CARPENTER 




Monograph 
WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1915 



°fi 



■#$■ 



APR i 1915 






CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Introduction - 7 

Location and area 7 

Purpose of investigation. . . 7 

Acknowledgments 9 

Geography 9 

Drainage 9 

Topography 10 

General features 10 

Stream topography 11 

Lake topography 12 

Wind topography 12 

Vegetation 13 

Industrial development 13 

Crops 14 

Geology 14 

Geologic history 15 

Rainfall 17 

Geographic distribution ' 17 

Annual variation 18 

Seasonal variation 18 

Occurrence of ground water 18 

Water in bedrock 18 

Sedimentary rocks 18 

Igneous rocks 19 

Confining function of bedrock 19 

Water in unconsolidated sediments 20 

Character of sediments 20 

Stream deposits 20 

Lake deposits 21 

Water levels 21 

Artesian conditions 22 

Prerequisite features of an artesian system 22 

Source of artesian water 23 

Permanency of artesian supply 23 

Springs 23 

Structural springs 23 

Springs from unconsolidated sediments 24 

Springs from igneous material 24 

Pool springs 24 

Knoll springs 25 

Hot springs 25 

Periodic spring 26 

3 



CONTENTS. 



Quality of water 26 

Substances generally dissolved in water 26 

Water for use in boilers 27 

Water for domestic use : 28 

Water for irrigation 29 

Analyses 30 

Water supply by areas 31 

Las Vegas drainage basin '. 31 

Location and extent 31 

Topography 31 

Geology 32 

Bedrock formations 32 

Valley fill 33 

Vegetation 36 

Soil 36 

Rainfall and temperature 38 

Ground water 39 

Springs 39 

Wells ; r. ' 39 

Quality of ground water 41 

Irrigation with ground water 41 

Virgin River drainage basin 43 

Meadow Valley drainage basin 43 

Location and area 43 

Duck Valley 43 

Location and extent 43 

Topography 44 

Geology 44 

Vegetation 45 

Industrial and agricultural development 45 

Water supplies 45 

Quality of water 47 

Irrigation with ground water 47 

Ursine Valley 48 

Location 48 

Topography 48 

Geology 48 

Vegetation 48 

Industrial and agricultural development 48 

Water supply 49 

Meadow Valley 49 

Location and extent 49 

Topography 49 

Geology 50 

Industrial and agricultural development 50 

Water supplies 50 

Meadow Valley canyon 51 

Topography , 51 

Geology 52 

Water supply 52 

White River drainage basin 53 

Location and extent 53 

Topography 53 



CONTENTS. 5 

Water supply by areas — Continued. 

Virginia River drainage basin — Continued. 

White River drainage basin — Continued. Page. 

Geology 55 

Water supply 55 

Quality of water 57 

Ground-water prospects 57 

Muddy and Virgin valleys 58 

Location 58 

Topography 58 

Geology 58 

Vegetation 59 

Rainfall and temperature 59 

Industrial development 60 

Water supply 61 

Quality of water * 63 

Future development 64 

Great Basin drainage 65 

Bristol and Delamar valleys 65 

Location and extent 65 

Topography 65 

Rainfall and vegetation 66 

Water supply 66 

Coal Valley 67 

Location and area 67 

Topography 68 

Geology 68 

Vegetation 1 69 

Water supply ' 69 

Garden Valley 69 

General features 69 

Water supply 70 

Dry Lake Valley 71 

Topography and geology 71 

Vegetation 71 

Water supply 71 

Indian Spring Valley 72 

Location , 72 

Topography 72 

Geology. 72 

Vegetation 73 

Rainfall 73 

Water supply 73 

Quality of water. 74 

Irrigation with ground water 75 

Railroad Valley 75 

Location and area 75 

Topography 75 

Geology 76 

Vegetation 78 

Soil 78 

Water supply 79 

Quality of water 79 



6 CONTENTS. 



Watering places on routes of travel 80 

Railroads and stage connections 80 

Main routes of travel 80 

General considerations 80 

Pioche to Ely and Osceola 81 

Pioche to the White River and Railroad valleys 81 

Pioche to Delamar, Hiko, and Alamo 82 

Caliente to Delamar, Alamo, and Hiko 82 

Hiko to Sharp post office and Railroad Valley 82 

Moapa to Alamo and Hiko 83 

Moapa to Bunkerville and Mesquite 83 

Distances between watering places 83 

Index. 85 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 

Plate I. Map of southeastern Nevada In pocket. 

II. Map of Las Vegas Valley, Nev 32 

III. Two types of flowing wells in Las Vegas Valley, Nev.: A, Egling- 

ton's flowing well; B, Barnsley's flowing well 40 

IV. A, Unconformity between Paleozoic and Tertiary strata in Meadow 

Valley canyon, near Rox, Nev.; B, Entrance to stream channel 

through basaltic lava about 24 miles north of Hiko, Nev 52 

V. Pahranagat Valley south of Hiko, Nev 54 

Figure 1. Map of Nevada showing the area investigated and approximate 
position of the boundary between Great Basin and Colorado River 
basin 8 

2. Diagram showing average monthly precipitation at seven stations in 

southeastern Nevada 18 

3. Sections across Spring Mountain 33 



INSERT. 



Page. 
Analyses and classification of water from southeastern Nevada 30 



GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 



By Everett Carpenter. 



INTRODUCTION. 

LOCATION AND AREA. 

The area covered by this report lies in southeastern Nevada and 
comprises about 17,000 square miles, of which about 6,000 square 
miles is in Clark County, 8,500 in Lincoln County, 300 in White Pine 
County, and 2,000 in Nye County. (See fig. 1.) The area thus 
covered is about the size of Massachusetts and New Hampshire com- 
bined. The San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad, commonly 
known as the Salt Lake route, crosses the eastern and southern parts 
of the area, passing through Caliente, Moapa, and Las Vegas. Two 
branch roads connect with the main line, one extending from Pioche 
to Caliente and another from Moapa to St. Thomas. The Las Vegas 
& Tonopah Railroad, which is subsidiary to the Salt Lake route, 
extends from Las Vegas northwestward to Goldfield. 

PURPOSE OF INVESTIGATION. 

The agricultural development of an arid region, such as is covered 
by this report, is dependent on the water supply available for irriga- 
tion and for domestic use. Large areas of good soil lie idle for want 
of water to make them productive, and most of the water that falls 
as rain or snow is dissipated and produces very little vegetation that 
is of economic value. A large amount of water percolates through 
the ground to the streams or valley floors, from which most of it is 
removed by evaporation. In some places this water can be inter- 
cepted in its course through the ground and used for domestic pur- 
poses, for watering live stock, or for irrigation. 

The need of more watering places on the range has long been felt, 
and recently the demand for information in regard to available 
supplies of ground water in Nevada has been increased by the agri- 
cultural, mining, and industrial development of the State. The 
springing up and rapid growth of many new mining camps has 
caused a new and imperative demand for water for domestic use and 
for mining and milling; the building of railroads has made neces- 
sary new supplies for locomotive and domestic use; and the estab- 

7 



8 



GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 




Figure 1. — Map of Nevada showing the area investigated and approximate position of boundary between 
Great Basin and Colorado River basin. 



GEOGRAPHY. 9 

lishment of dry farms has created a need for new water supplies 
for domestic purposes, for stock watering, and for supplementary 
irrigation. The enlargement of the agricultural communities and 
the nearly complete utilization of the stream waters has turned 
attention to the possible development of underground supplies for 
irrigation. 

In the summer of 1912 the United States Geological Survey, 
recognizing the value of the underground supplies in the State and 
the general lack of knowledge about them, began an investigation 
of southeastern Nevada as part of a comprehensive ground-water 
survey of the entire State. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

The completeness of such a report as is here presented depends 
very largely on the information and aid given by the people of the 
region examined, and the writer desires to express his indebtedness 
to the many persons who have willingly given data that have been 
useful in preparing the paper. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

DRAINAGE. 

The area covered by this report lies in two drainage provinces — the 
Great Basin and Colorado River basin. The boundary between these 
two provinces has never been accurately mapped. It runs from 
northeast to southwest in a very irregular course, throwing about 
one-fourth of the area, comprising Delamar, Bristol, Coal, Garden, 
Dry Lake, Indian Spring, and Railroad valleys, into the Great Basin, 
and the other three-fourths, comprising the Meadow, White River, 
Muddy River, Virgin River, and Las Vegas valleys, into the Colorado 
River basin. (See fig. 1.) 

Two well-defined drainage systems in southeastern Nevada, those 
of Virgin River and of Las Vegas Wash, are tributary to Colorado 
River. (See PL I, in pocket.) Virgin River rises in southern Utah, 
flows southwestward across the northwest corner of Arizona, enters 
Nevada at Mesquite, flows past Bunkerville and St. Thomas, and 
discharges into Colorado River. The main tributary to this stream 
is Muddy River, which at present rises in the Moapa Indian Reserva- 
tion but which in former geologic times had its source many miles 
to the north in the head of the White River valley. A well-developed 
and open channel extends from near the town of Preston southward 
through Pahranagat Valley and into the Muddy River valley. 
Meadow Valley Wash, the largest affluent of Muddy River, has its 
source in two forks, which unite north of Panaca. One fork heads 
in Duck Valley, near Geyser, and the other in Ursine Valley. The 



10 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

stream is joined at Caliente by Clover Creek, descends steeply toward 
the south, and discharges into Muddy River below Moapa. Las 
Vegas Wash is a drainage channel which heads in Las Vegas Valley, for 
which it is the only outlet. At the present it is dry except in times 
of great floods, but there is good evidence that at one time it was a 
stream of considerable size. 

White River and Duck valleys seem to have been regarded by the 
early explorers as having an interior drainage. Capt. G. M. Wheeler, 1 
who made the first survey of this area, in speaking of the itinerary 
of the expedition of 1869, says: 

The principal streams * * * from south to north are Virgin River and Muddy 
Creek, a tributary heading in Pahranagat Valley, with a small affluent having its source 
at the head of Cedar [Ursine] Valley near the Utah boundary. 

The " small affluent" of which Wheeler speaks is Meadow Valley 
Wash, which forks at Panaca, one branch heading in Ursine Valley and 
the other in Duck Valley, in the vicinity of Geyser. The boundary of 
the Great Basin, as given by Gilbert's map, 2 conforms in general to the 
area outlined by Wheeler. 

Spurr 3 was the first to call attention to the fact that Duck and White 
River valleys are connected with the ocean by open channels. In 
speaking of the erosion in the dry valleys of southeastern Nevada he 
says : 4 

A large part of Nevada has well-defined valleys forming a part of the Colorado 
River system, which a week of rain would supply with streams. Meadow Valley, 
which heads near Pioche, is tributary to the Virgin River, an affluent of the Colo- 
rado. For the greater part of the course it is a magnificent canyon, cut sharply in 
Tertiary lavas and tuffs to a depth which in places reaches 2,000 feet. * * * The 
canyon is continuous farther north with a typical flat desert valley, called Duck 
Valley, which extends beyond the thirty-ninth parallel. On the south Meadow Val- 
ley is confluent, not far from its end, with the valley of Muddy Creek, in which flow 
waters derived from a spring. Above the source of the spring a drainage channel 
extends northward nearly to the latitude of Eureka. * * * In its upper portions 
it goes by the name of White River. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

GENEEAL FEATURES. 

The most characteristic topographic features of the area covered 
by this report consist of a series of parallel north-south mountain 
ranges and intervening broad debris-filled valleys. This type of 
topography predominates over the Great Basin and adjacent regions 
and is known as the Basin Range type. These mountain ranges 
were produced by a system of parallel faults, the strata on one side 

i Wheeler, Capt. G. M., Geographical report: U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 1, p. 22, 1889. 

2 Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville: U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 1, PI. II, 1890. 

3 Spurr, J. E., Origin of the Basin ranges: Geol. Soc. America Bull., vol. 12, pp. 217-270, 1901. 

4 Op. cit., p. 252. 



GEOGRAPHY. 11 

of which were uplifted with respect to the strata on the other side. 
The valleys owe their existence and character to the faulting move- 
ments whereby great troughs were formed, and to the arid climate 
and deficient water supply, as a result of which the sediments washed 
from the mountains were not carried onward to the sea, as would 
have been the case in a humid region, but were accumulated in the 
valley troughs forming the broad and comparatively smooth desert 
plains that lie between the ranges. 

STREAM TOPOGRAPHY. 

Since the deformation of the region, running water, resulting from 
rains or melting snow, has been actively modifying the topography. 
The faces of the mountain escarpments have been carved into intri- 
cately shaped surfaces. The torrential streams which head in the 
mountains have cut deep canyons and have carried the excavated 
material into the valleys, which they are gradually filling. 

The material thus carried from the mountains and redeposited in 
the valleys has produced alluvial fans and slopes. In their upper 
courses the streams have steep gradients and are confined to narrow 
channels and therefore they erode rapidly, carrying clay, sand, gravel, 
and bowlders into the valley. Below the mouths of the canyons, 
however, the narrow channels become broader, the steep gradients 
become gentler, and the swift currents slacken. The coarse material 
which the stream has brought from the mountains is deposited and 
the areas surrounding the mouths of canyons are built up more 
rapidly than the other parts of the valley, forming conspicuous fans 
adjacent to the ruts. The stream channels that dissect the face of 
the mountains are numerous, so that the alluvial fans are so close 
together that they coalesce and form a fairly uniform surface. 

The streams vary in magnitude at different times and the distance 
to which they carry eroded material is by no means constant. A 
stream resulting from a heavy downpour may carry large bowlders 
far into the valley, whereas a stream resulting from a gentle rain 
may deposit even fine material near the mountains. Moreover, a 
stream does not build all parts of the slope simultaneously, but fills 
up in one place until its channel is higher than an adjacent part, 
when it breaks over and flows across the lower portion. Hence the 
alluvial slopes are composed of material in all grades of fineness. 
Since the alluvial slopes are composed largely of coarse material, 
streams flowing over them generally sink soon after emerging from 
the canyon. 

If no weathering had occurred and no work been done by the 
streams the relief of the region would be much greater than it is. 
The mountains would be higher, the valleys would be lower, and the 



12 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

mountain sides would be steeper. Ever since deformation took 
place the streams have been tearing down the mountains and build- 
ing up the valleys. The extent to which the valleys have been filled 
is not known, but the deepest wells in southeastern Nevada have 
apparently ended in valley fill. 

The processes described are effective in an arid climate, such as 
exists at present in southeastern Nevada. A period of aridity, how- 
ever, may be interrupted by a period of relative humidity, during 
which the intermittent streams emerging from the mountains become 
persistent. If the valley into which the streams flow is completely 
surrounded by higher ground a lake is produced, but if the valley is 
open the water flows out and carries away part of the material already 
deposited in the valley. A lake in a closed valley may rise until it 
flows over its containing wall and the outflowing stream may erode 
a channel in an adjacent valley through which it discharges. Exam- 
ples of all three conditions are found in southeastern Nevada. The 
evidence shows that Coal, Bristol, Delamar, and Railroad valleys 
formerly held lakes that had no outlets; that Duck Valley and the 
northern part of Las Vegas Valley held lakes which overflowed; and 
that the White River and Meadow Creek valleys were open troughs 
through which rather large rivers had their channels. 

LAKE TOPOGRAPHY. 

The topographic features formed by running water have been 
modified in a few of the valleys by the waves of ancient lakes. Along 
the shores of these lakes were formed beaches, terraces, and other 
shore features not unlike those existing at the margins of modern 
lakes, though small and inconspicuous in comparison with those 
exhibited in some other parts of the Great Basin. 1 The most pro- 
nounced shore features were formed when the lakes stood at their 
highest levels, those of less prominence being formed at lower levels. 

With the exception of a small amount of erosion on alluvial slopes 
the topography has undergone only slight modification since the 
desiccation of the lakes. The bottoms of the closed basins are slowly 
being built up and the ancient river channels in the open valleys have 
in many places been partly or wholly blocked by deposits which 
project as small alluvial cones from the mouths of tributary arroyos. 

WIND TOPOGRAPHY. 

The wind has been active in reworking the finer sediments that 
were deposited in the valleys by the processes just described and also 
in abrading the bedrock formations in exposed places. It did its 

i Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville: U. S. Geol. Survey Mon. 1, pp. 90-169, 1890. Also Russell, I. C, Geolog- 
ical history of Lake Lahontan: U. S. Geol- Survey Mon. 11, pp. 99-123, 1885. 



GEOGRAPHY. 13 

most conspicuous work in Muddy Valley below Moapa, where it 
carved intricate pits and holes in the steep cliffs. In many other 
places the outcropping rocks have been worn smooth by the impact 
of wind-blown sand. In Las Vegas Valley the numerous sand dunes, 
found usually on the north sides of the stream channels, were probably 
formed by the action of the prevailing wind which carried the sand 
brought down by the storm waters into the vegetation to the north. 
In some of the valleys good desert " pavements" have been produced 
by pebbles left at the surface after the finer sediments were carried 
away by the wind. 

VEGETATION. 

The native vegetation varies with the ecologic conditions. On the 
high mountains pine, cedar, and mahogany are the predominating 
plant species, but these give way to pinon and juniper farther down 
on the sides of the mountains. The valleys are in general covered by 
sagebrush, shadscale, creosote, Spanish bayonet, yucca, and other 
drought-resisting plants. Along the streams and in the shallow-water 
areas mesquite, rabbit brush, arrow weed, quail brush, cottonwood, 
and willows are found. Native grasses are found in some localities, 
especially in places which receive the run-off from the mountains or 
the discharge from springs. 

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. 

In the early days, before the railroads in this area were built, trans- 
portation was here effected by wagons. Building material for St. 
Thomas was hauled overland from Milford, Utah, and the machinery 
used in the mines at Pioche was brought from Palisade, Nev., on the 
Southern Pacific Railroad. The San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake 
Railroad was constructed through this part of Nevada in 1904, since 
which time communication with the outside world has been easier. 

Most of the early inhabitants of Nevada were miners and pros- 
pectors and therefore congregated in the mining camps. The first 
active mine in this area was discovered in 1869 at Pioche, which by 
1872 became a town of about 10,000 inhabitants. The Delamar 
mines were opened in 1875 and were in active operation by 1879. 
Only in the better- watered communities, however, was farming 
undertaken, and in the area here considered only three localities 
were so favored. Muddy Valley was settled in 1858 by Mormons but 
was deserted in 1865, owing to a conflict between the settlers and the 
Lincoln County authorities, and was not again settled until 1876. 
Meadow and Ursine valleys were settled by Mormons in 1863 and 
1864, respectively, and Pahranagat Valley in about 1880. It was 
not until recent years that agricultural development was begun in 
Las Vegas Valley. The first flowing well was sunk in 1906, and 



14 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

since that time many settlers have come into the valley and about 
100 flowing wells have been sunk. 

Dry farming has been undertaken in Duck, Ursine, and Meadow 
valleys, and the results thus far obtained seem to indicate that it may 
be practiced successfully in parts of some of them. The data in hand, 
however, do not warrant the belief that it may be practiced in all the 
valleys nor that good crops can be raised every year in the places 
where it is now attempted. 

The cattle and sheep industry has always been important in this 
region. So much of the State is remote from the railroads that the 
ordinary farm products can not be profitably transported to market. 
Cattle and sheep can, however, be pastured on the range and driven 
to the railroad at little cost. 

CROPS. 

The principal crops that can be grown in all the valleys of south- 
eastern Nevada are wheat, oats, Indian corn, alfalfa, rye, potatoes, 
cantaloupes, watermelons, apples, pears, and garden stuffs. In the 
southern part of the area, where a subtropical climate prevails, grapes, 
peaches, pomegranates, and almonds are successfully produced. 
Until the completion of the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake 
Railroad in 1894 the agricultural communities had no market for 
their products except a few small mining towns, and hence the princi- 
pal crops were such as could be profitably fed to stock. Since the 
completion of the railroad it has been practicable to transport the 
produce from a part of the region to the cities, and agricultural 
development has consequently been stimulated. In 1912 a large 
acreage of cantaloupes in Muddy Valley was reported to have yielded 
the owners an average of $170 per acre. 

The long growing season in southeastern Nevada, the variety of 
crops that may be grown, and the large yields that are possible fur- 
nish ideal conditions for farming in the localities where water for 
irrigation can be obtained. 

GEOLOGY. 1 

The rocks exposed in the large area covered by this report probably 
range in age from pre-Cambrian to Recent. 

Pre-Cambrian igneous rocks and gneiss are found in Boulder 
Canyon at the south end of the Muddy Range and also at the south 
end of the Virgin Range. 

1 Summarized in large part from the works of earlier geologists, especially the following: 

Spurr, J. E., Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel and adjacent parts of California: 
U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 208, 1903. 

Wheeler, Capt. G. M., Geology: U. S. Geog. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 3, 1875. 

Ball, S. H., A geologic reconnaissance in southwestern Nevada and eastern California: U.S. Geol. Survey 
Bull. 308, 1907. 



GEOLOGIC HISTOKY. 15 

The Paleozoic formations comprise a great thickness of limestone, 
sandstone, shale, and quartzite. The most complete section of the 
beds is found in the Las Vegas Range, 1 where rocks of Cambrian, 
Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous ages are exposed. 
In many places the Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian are absent 
from the Paleozoic section. 

Mesozoic formations of limestone, sandstone, clay, conglomerate, 
and lava, are found in the Spring Mountain and the Muddy ranges. 
These beds are Jurassic and Triassic in age. Cretaceous rocks are 
not known to occur in this area. 

Sandstone, clay, conglomerate, rhyolite, andesite, and tuff believed 
to be of Tertiary age are found in the Mormon, Meadow Valley, and 
Seaman ranges. The beds are well exposed in the Meadow Valley 
canyon between Moapa and Panaca and in the White River valley 
in the vicinity of White Rock Spring. 

Stream, wind, and lake deposits, consisting of relatively uncon- 
solidated gravel, clay, and sand, occur beneath the valleys. These 
sediments were the last to be deposited and are of late Tertiary, 
Pleistocene, and Recent age. They constitute the valley deposits 
with which the structural troughs are partly filled. Their depth is 
not known, for no well sunk in them seems to have reached their 
bottom, not even the Potash well in Railroad Valley, which was sunk 
to a depth of 1,204 feet. 

GEOLOGIC HISTORY. 

Cambrian rocks containing marine fossils are found at various 
localities in this area, and it is therefore certain that this portion of 
southeastern Nevada was at least partly submerged beneath the sea 
in Cambrian time. The absence of Ordovician, Silurian, and De- 
vonian rocks over most of the region makes it probable that this area 
was largely above the sea and was therefore subject to erosion during 
these periods. 

Thick Carboniferous formations containing marine fossils are found 
in many places, indicating that the area was again submerged in 
Carboniferous time. 

The Mesozoic era is represented m this area by rocks belonging to 
the Jurassic and Triassic systems only, Cretaceous rocks being absent, 
and even Jurassic and Triassic rocks are found only in the Muddy and 
Spring Mountain ranges. It is therefore probable that southeastern 
Nevada was largely land during Jurassic and Triassic times and that 
it was wholly land during Cretaceous time. 

At the close of the Mesozoic era the Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks 
were folded and faulted by movements that probably continued to a 

1 Spurr, J. E., Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 
208, pp. 155-157, 1903. 



16 GKOUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

greater or less degree until very recent time. In the vicinity of Hiko 
there are fresh fault scarps which affect the valley fill and which have 
obviously been formed in very late time. 

Stratified sedimentary rocks of Tertiary age occupy many of the 
structural troughs in southeastern Nevada, showing that the region 
was partly submerged or at least subjected to sedimentation during 
this time. Great masses of igneous rocks are associated with the 
sedimentary material, showing that the Tertiary was also a period of 
great volcanic disturbance. This period was probably one of exten- 
sive erosion and of lake deposition. Ball * believes that the area to 
the west, which lies between 36° 30 ' and 38° north latitude and be- 
tween 116° and 117° 30' west longitude was in Tertiary times the 
site of a lake that he calls Pahute Lake. Rowe 2 believed that a 
Tertiary lake lay in Las Vegas Valley, and other valleys may also have 
contained lakes in this period. 

During parts of the Pleistocene epoch the climate in the Great 
Basin was much more humid than it is now and the closed basins 
contained rather large lakes. The waters of Great Salt Lake stood 
about 1,000 feet higher than at present and the Carson Sink was at 
the bottom of another great lake. This humid period was repre- 
sented in southeastern Nevada by a number of lakes and streams. 
Coal, Duck, Bristol, Delamar, Railroad, and Indian Spring valleys 
and the northern part of Las Vegas Valley contained lakes, and the 
White River, Pahranagat, Muddy, Meadow, and Las Vegas valleys 
contained large streams. (See PI. I.) Three sets of terraces are 
found in the valleys drained by the tributaries of Colorado River. 
They are especially well developed in Las Vegas and Meadow valleys, 
where they show the most conspicuous topographic features. These 
terraces appear to have been produced by successive stages of filling 
and erosion and are probably the results of varying climatic condi- 
tions in the Pleistocene epoch. The climate during this epoch is 
believed to have been alternately dry and humid. During the 
humid stages the valleys were excavated and in the arid stages they 
were refilled. Lee 3 has shown that the Grand Canyon of the Colo- 
rado was formed by three stages of down-cutting separated by stages 
of nonerosion, and the terraces in the debris-filled valleys of south- 
eastern Nevada may correspond in time with these three stages. 

The lake features in the closed valleys show only one period of 
humidity. Any climatic conditions that would produce erosion in 
the open valleys would doubtless produce lakes in the closed valleys, 
but in valleys that contained only small lakes the traces of earlier 

i Ball,S. H., A geological reconnaissance in southwestern Nevada and eastern California: U. S. Geol. Sur- 
vey Bull. 308, p. 41, 1907. 

2 Spurr, J. E., Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 
208, p. 157, 1903. 

3 Lee, W. T., Geologic reconnaissance of a part of western Arizona: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 352, 1903. 



EAINFALL. 



17 



lakes would doubtless be destroyed or concealed by those of later 
ones and only those of the most recent lake would probably be pre- 
served. In the Great Salt Lake and Carson basins, however, there 
is evidence of more than one high-water stage, and these evidences 
of several stages of humidity are corroborated by the well-known 
evidences of climatic fluctuations in the glaciated regions. 

RAINFALL. 

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION. 

Rainfall data have been collected for the United States Weather 
Bureau at the stations named in the following table. Two of the 
stations — Ely and Modena — he outside of the area here considered, 
Ely being to the north and Modena to the east. 

Annual precipitation (in inches) at seven stations in southeastern Nevada. 



Year. 


Pioche. 


Geyser. 


Ely. 


Logan. 


Las Vegas. 


Modena. 


Caliente. 


1878 


8.36 
6.94 
4.67 
5.25 
8.31 
16.72 
27.35 
16.14 












1879 












1880. . 












1881 












1882 






1 1 




1888. .. 






! 




1889 




13.54 
7.16 
18.01 


! 




1890. 








1891 










1892 


7.10 










1893 




9.14 
16.17 
14.'77 
11.82 
17.20 
15.06 
14.35 
10.47 
11.51 
10.91 




1 




1894 














1895 












1896 






3.24 
5.35 
1.64 
2.03 






1897 ! 










1898 ! 










1899 i 1 








1900 










1901 







9.24 
5.09 
6.93 
9.83 
12.39 
19.08 
12.80 
16.62 
11.49 
9.50 
10.46 
10.07 




1902 








1903 J 




i 




1904 






I 




1905 


8.26 
19.04 
11.38 










1906 


19.15 










1907 




7.44 
7.51 
8.17 
3.15 

5.03 
3.92 






1908 1. 


7.45 
13.15 

6.62 
5.00 
3.96 


4.73 




1909 1... 






1910 


1.15 
1.00 
3.05 


2.92 
a 4. 70 
a 1.33 




1911 


6.09 


1912 




2 98 








Average 


11.99 


7.31 


11.46 


5.84 


3.42 


11.12 


4.53 







a Data collected at Jean. 

These records are too few and too discontinuous to allow the 
formation of any but the most general conclusions regarding the 
geographic distribution of the rainfall. In general more rain falls 
in the northern part of the area than in the southern part and more 
in high than in low altitudes. Thus the average annual precipitation 
is 7.31 inches at Geyser and 11.99 inches at Pioche but only 3.42 
inches at Las Vegas and 5.84 inches at Logan. These averages are, 
however, not very conclusive because they cover different years. 
50014°— wsp 365—15 2 



18 



GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 



In the arid region the rains often come in the form of " cloud- 
bursts," in which a large amount of water falls on a small area in a 
o rt short time. 



^\ 



4 



\ 



\ 



i 



/"■■ 



y/i 



(saipui) uo|p2}idioaid 



ANNUAL VARIATION. 

The precipitation at any station varies 
from year to year. Thus the records show 
a range in annual precipitation from 4.67 
to 27.35 inches at Pioche; from 1 to 19.04 
inches at Geyser; from 3.96 to 18.01 inches 
at Ely; from 3.15 to 8.17 inches at Logan; 
from 1.33 to 5.35 inches at Las Vegas; and 
from 5.09 to 19.08 inches at Modena. The 
records are not sufficiently extensive to be 
of service in correlating the variations at 
different stations. 

SEASONAL VARIATION. 

The precipitation is not equally distributed 
throughout the year. In general more rain 
falls during January, February, and March 
than during April, May, and June, and more 
falls during July, August, and September 
than during October, November, and Decem- 
ber. The rains occurring during February 
and March are usually heavier than those 
occurring during July, August, and Septem- 
ber. (See fig. 2.) 

OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. 
WATER IN BEDROCK. 

Sedimentary rocks. — The indurated sedi- 
mentary rocks exposed in this region con- 
sist mainly of Paleozoic limestone, quartzite, 
and shale. Their outcrops are confined to 
the mountainous areas and are found in most 
of the mountain ranges. The conglomerates, 
sandstones, and clays, which belong to the 
younger systems, are confined to the lower 
mountains and table-lands, being found in 
Las Vegas, Muddy, and Virgin valleys and 
along Meadow Valley Wash. 



OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. 19 

The Paleozoic quartzites and limestones are generally so compact 
and so impervious that water can not pass through them except 
along joints and fracture zones. The conglomerates and sandstones 
are generally more pervious and unless too firmly cemented allow 
water to pass through their pore spaces. The shales and clay beds 
are practically impervious. 

If the indurated strata were in a favorable topographic attitude 
they would doubtless furnish small amounts of water to wells in some 
localities, but they generally he in such a position that the water 
which sinks into them in the mountainous areas is either returned to 
the surface at places where the strata outcrop or is carried so far 
below the unconsolidated sediments that it can not be reached except 
by very deep drilling. Consequently very little water has been ob- 
tained by wells sunk into bedrock and but few attempts have been 
made to obtain water from it. 

The mining shafts that have been sunk into the indurated strata 
to considerable depths have not all obtained water. The shaft at 
Delamar found no water, although it was sunk to a depth of 1,400 
feet, but the workings at Pioche are reported to have been drowned 
at the 1,100-foot level. The shaft in Jackrabbit mine at Royal goes 
to a depth of 1,500 feet without finding water. 

Igneous rocks. — The igneous rocks include granite, andesite, 
rhyolite, and tuff. Igneous rocks of Tertiary age occur in large 
quantities in Meadow Valley, Pahroc, and Hiko ranges, and on both 
sides of Ursine Valley. 

No wells in igneous rocks have been reported, but in some localities 
small amounts of water no doubt occur in cracks and fissures in these 
rocks. Seaman, White Rock, and Pahroc springs issue from volcanic 
tuff and yield small supplies. 

Confining function of bedrock. — For the region as a whole the 
indurated sedimentary and igneous rocks can afford relatively small 
quantities of ground water. The most important function of these 
bedrock formations is to close the debris-filled valleys by making 
their bottoms and sides practically impervious and thus to prevent 
in large part the downward escape of the water that may be stored 
in them, making underground reservoirs of the masses of softer 
deposits above them. Open valleys, like the White River, Pahrana- 
gat, and Las Vegas, allow some of the water which they receive to 
escape, but as their outlets are usually small in comparison with 
their size the annual increment is always sufficient to replace the loss 
by seepage. Most of the closed valleys, such as Coal, Dry Lake, 
Bristol, and Delamar, are higher than the adjacent valleys and lose 
so much water through fissures in the rocks that their water levels 
remain far below the surface. It is not likely, however, that all 
their water escapes or that their unconsolidated sediments are 



20 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

generally entirely dry. The indurated strata therefore cause an accu- 
mulation of water, which may be drawn upon in the low parts of th'} 
valleys, and are in this respect of great economic value. 

WATER IN UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS. 

Character of sediments. — The sediments that partly fill the struc- 
tural basins have been derived primarily from the mountains. In 
a few localities the deposits are composed of volcanic tuff and lava, 
but these are relatively unimportant. Ever since the great deforma- 
tion movements that brought about the major relief of the region 
winds, rains, frosts, and vegetation have been disintegrating the 
ancient limestones, quartzites, and igneous rocks, and torrents and 
permanent streams have been carrying away the fragments and 
redepositing them in the valleys. These processes have given rise 
on the one hand to fantastically sculptured and serrated peaks and 
on the other hand to smooth alluvial slopes. 

These deposits of clay, sand, gravel, and bowlders are collectively 
called "unconsolidated sediments" or "valley fill," to differentiate 
them from the older and much more indurated formations, which 
outcrop mainly in the mountainous areas and which are collectively 
called "bedrock." It should be remembered, however, that even 
the so-called unconsolidated sediments are more or less cemented, as 
is shown by the fact that many wells in them have stood for a long 
time without being cased above the water table. In some localities 
the valley fill has been subjected to metamorphism by the heat of 
more recent lavas. 

The unconsolidated sediments are much more valuable as water- 
bearing beds than the bedrock formations. The bedrock formations 
are usually hard, compact, and relatively impervious except for 
cracks and fissures, and consequently they do not hold much water, 
but the unconsolidated sediments are usually granular and porous, 
and unless they are fine grained or clayey they will hold a relatively 
large amount of water. It does not follow, however, that the uncon- 
solidated sediments are water bearing in every locality or horizon, for 
they may either have been drained of their water or they may consist 
of fine-grained material which does not yield water freely. 

Stream deposits. — Where a torrential stream emerges from the 
mountains its gradient is usually so much diminished that its carrying 
power is greatly reduced. As a result of this reduction the coarse 
material that the stream has carried in suspension or has rolled along 
its bottom is deposited, and only the fine-grained material is ordi- 
narily carried far out into the valley. Hence the alluvial slopes 
adjacent to the mountains are underlain chiefly by coarse material 
and the areas most distant from the mouths of the canyons largely 
by clay and fine sand. 



WATER LEVELS. 21 

If the streams that pour into the valleys were of constant volume 
the material which they deposit would be uniformly sorted, but in 
fact they fluctuate greatly in volume and consequently in carrying 
power. A stream resulting from a cloud-burst may have such velocity 
that it will carry large bowlders far into the valley, and a stream re- 
sulting from a gentle rain may be so sluggish and may sink so soon 
after emerging from the mountains that it deposits even the fine- 
grained material on the upper part of the alluvial slope. Hence the 
stream deposits in any given locality differ greatly in fineness, and a 
well sunk into them generally encounters recurring beds of clay, sand, 
and gravel. 

As the streams issuing from the mountains begin depositing imme- 
diately upon entering the valley, they soon build up their stream 
channels above the adjacent parts of the slope. They then break over 
and find a new course on a lower portion of the slope. This process 
is repeated many times, the stream swinging from one side of the allu- 
vial fan to the other. Hence the beds of gravel and sand have little 
lateral continuity, and wells sunk not far apart may have entirely 
different sections. 

The stream deposits are largely composed of clay, sand, gravel, and 
bowlders and are generally capable of transmitting more or less 
water. The average size of the constituent particles of the beds and 
the quantity of water which they will hold decrease with the distance 
from their source. Wells sunk in the central parts of the valleys may 
yield smaller quantities of water than those farther up the alluvial 
slope on account of the greater fineness of the containing beds. On 
the other hand, on the higher portions of the alluvial slopes the porous 
beds are likely to be drained of their water, and wells sunk in these 
places may strike bedrock before they reach the water table. 

Lake deposits. — Where a stream empties into a lake its velocity is 
checked and all the heavier particles it carries are deposited, but the 
flocculent clayey or sandy material is held in suspension until it has 
become widely disseminated through the quiet water, and finally it 
settles evenly over the bottom of the lake. Lake deposits are there- 
fore likely to consist largely of beds of clay and fine-grained sand that 
will yield only meager supplies of water. No wells have been sunk 
into known lake beds in this area. 

WATER LEVELS. 

The water table is the surface below which the pores and crevices 
of the earth are saturated. The topography of the water table 
underlying the debris-filled valleys conforms in general to the topog- 
raphy of the surface of the land, but its slopes are more gentle. The 
water table rises in the direction of the mouths of the canyons, whence 



22 GROUND WATER W SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

come the principal supplies of water, but the surface rises much more 
rapidly. Hence, even though in the central part of a valley the water 
table is near the surface it generally becomes gradually deeper in the 
direction of the mountains. This increase in the altitude of the sur- 
face with respect to the altitude of the water table should be taken 
into account when a well is sunk on the alluvial slopes. 

Springs and alkali flats in the lower parts of a valley indicate that 
the water table is at the surface in these low places and that it there- 
fore probably extends beneath the entire debris-filled part of the 
valley. In valleys like Duck and Railroad, in which there are 
springs and alkali flats, the chances of obtaining water, even on the 
alluvial slopes, are much better than in valleys that have no such 
indications of ground water. In prospecting for water on the slopes 
preference should be given to the side of the valley on which the 
highest mountains are found, as the water comes most largely from 
rains in these mountains. 

In a dry valley which has no springs nor alkali tracts the chances 
of obtaining water beneath the alluvial slopes are uncertain. The 
absence of springs and of alkali shows that the sediments are not 
saturated to the level of the lowest part of the valley but leaves no 
clue as to whether the deeper sediments contain water or are entirely 
dry. If a valley is relatively low or if its sediments are inclosed and 
underlain by impervious rocks it may contain some water, but if it is 
high relative to the surrounding region and if the inclosing rocks are 
faulted or fissured or consist of soluble rocks, such as limestone, its 
sediments may be entirely dry. Explorations for water in dry val- 
leys should be confined to the lower parts of the slopes and to the 
localities where the largest canyons discharge their storm waters. 

ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 

PREREQUISITE FEATURES OF AN ARTESIAN SYSTEM. 

The geologic conditions that are essential to an artesian system are 
few and simple: 1 

1. An inclined porous stratum, or water-bearing bed, such as 
coarse sand or gravel, which receives water in its higher portions and 
transmits it freely to its lower portions. 

2. Relatively impervious strata, such as clay or shale, above the 
water-bearing bed, to confine the water in the lower areas. 

3. Resistance to lateral escape of the water from the lower part of 
the water-bearing bed greater than the resistance to the ascent of the 
water in the wells. This may be due to either of several factors, 
among the commonest of which are: 

1 Chamber lin, T. C, Requisite and qualifying conditions of artesian wells: U. S. Geol. Survey Fifth 
Ann. Rept., pp. 134-135, 1885. Fuller, M. L., Controlling factors of artesian flows: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 
319, 1908. 



SPBINGS. 2& 

(a) A bend in the beds, causing the water-bearing stratum to out- 
crop in another elevated locality, as on the opposite side of the basin. 

(b) The discontinuance of the water-bearing bed in the lower 
part of the basin. 

(c) Loss of porosity in the water-bearing bed. 

(d) Frictional resistance to lateral movement within the water- 
bearing bed. 

The annual increment must be at least equal to the annual escape 
from the valley. Few structural valleys are completely closed, 
most of them having an outlet somewhere, so that more or less 
water is constantly escaping. In Las Vegas Valley, for example, 
considerable water flows beneath the surface of the channel of Las 
Vegas Wash. 

SOURCE OF ARTESIAN WATER. 

The source of supply of the water of an artesian basin such as Las 
Vegas Valley is undoubtedly the mountain streams that flow down 
the alluvial slopes that border it. Most of these streams disappear 
soon after they reach the slopes, particularly the streams in south- 
eastern Nevada, where none but the flood waters from heavy rains 
reach the central parts of the valleys. After sinking into the ground 
the water from these streams percolates downward through the 
loose material bordering the mountains. If it passes beneath an 
impervious stratum and becomes confined there, it accumulates 
and produces an artesian head. 

PERMANENCY OF ARTESIAN SUPPLY. 

To be permanently successful, an artesian basin should not be 
drawn upon at a rate in excess of the rate of increment. Many per- 
sons believe that artesian supplies are limitless and allow the water 
from artesian wells to flow continuously without any regard for the 
future, but the discharge of wells in an artesian basin usually dimin- 
ishes or ceases entirely after a few years' use. This decrease maybe 
due to the draining of the reservoir, either by intentionally allowing 
the water to run continuously or by unintentionally allowing it to 
escape around the outside of the casing of wells. The former waste 
can be remedied by shutting the water off at the mouth of the well, 
but the latter, which is due to faulty construction of the well, can be 
prevented only by proper precautions in drilling. 

SPRINGS. 

STRUCTURAL SPRINGS. 

The rocks exposed in the mountains, which are mainly limestones, 
quartzites, and igneous material, are relatively impervious. They 
have, however, been greatly faulted and contain many fissures, 



24 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

through which the water that falls upon the mountainous areas may 
descend to great depths. Some large fissures apparently occur 
along fault planes, and through these the water is returned to the 
surface and issues in the form of springs. Springs of this type, 
which may be designated structural springs, generally have large 
discharges that are comparatively uniform throughout the year. 
Such springs are found in White River, Pahranagat, and Muddy 
valleys, where they contribute the principal supplies. 

SPRINGS FROM UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS. 

It has been pointed out (p. 22) that in some of the valleys the 
sediments are saturated with water to the level of the lowest parts 
of the surface. This is particularly true of Railroad and Duck 
valleys, which contain considerable alkali and swampy areas. Where 
this condition obtains, overflow occurs in the low places. A large 
part of the overflow takes place through minute pores in the soil, 
from which the water is evaporated so rapidly that its presence 
would be unnoticed were it not for the accumulation of alkali it 
leaves upon the surface. Some of the overflow, however, issues as 
definite streams from large openings in the form of springs or seeps. 
Springs of this character are generally not of very great value. 
They usually issue on land that contains too much alkali and is too 
swampy to be of use except for pasture and hay. They are signifi- 
cant, however, for they show that the sediments contain water. 

Springs occur also where a water-bearing stratum among the 
unconsolidated sediments has been cut by erosion. Several of this 
type occur in Las Vegas Varley. 

SPRINGS FROM IGNEOUS MATERIAL. 

Most of the igneous rocks of southeastern Nevada are impervious 
to water except in cracks and fissures, along which water may per- 
colate with freedom. A considerable amount of volcanic tuff, how- 
ever, is associated with the lava of the region, and in some places 
this gives rise to small springs. Seaman, White Rock, and Pahroc 
springs issue from such material and are all very small. 

POOL SPRINGS. 

There is an important group of pool springs in Duck Valley near 
Geyser, where 63 springs occur on a quarter section of land. Most 
of these springs are deep, jug-shaped reservoirs, which are always 
partly and sometimes completely covered by a shelf of soil and grass 
roots. Their depth is not known, out according to popular belief it 
is very great. In attempting to drink from them many horses and 
cattle have lost their footing and have sunk beneath the shelf, 
never to be recovered. 



SPRINGS. 25 

Springs of this type were studied by Meinzer, 1 who offers the fol- 
lowing explanation of them: 

That these springs are not merely the return to the surface of water that perco- 
lates into the sediments of the adjacent alluvial slopes seems to be shown by the fol- 
lowing facts: First, the yield from many of them is larger than would be expected if 
they were supplied from local sources; second, their yield is' nearly uniform, though 
that of ordinary valley springs fluctuates with the season; third, their location differs 
from that of ordinary valley springs * * *; fourth, the temperature of many of 
them is distinctly higher than the mean annual temperature of the region, which is 
not the case with springs fed from local and shallow sources. All these differences 
suggest a relation to the rock structure. 

KNOLL SPRINGS. 

At Tule Springs and Corn Creek Springs in Las Vegas Valley, and 
at Mesquite Springs in Indian Spring Valley there are knoll springs, 
consisting of mounds or knolls, averaging about 10 feet in height, 
from the sides or top of which water flows. The knolls or mounds 
have probably been built up by dust and sand carried by the wind 
into the vegetation surrounding the springs, and held there by the 
moisture. Ordinarily the accumulation continues until it becomes 
high enough to stop the flow of the spring. Many of the knolls are 
now dry at the surface, having been closed by the sand and dust, 
but that they were once springs is proved by the fact that water is 
found beneath them at shallow depths when they are opened by 
digging. 

HOT SPRINGS. 

The temperature of the ground near the surface of the earth fluctu- 
ates with the seasonal changes in the weather, but at a short distance 
below the surface no such fluctuations take place, a constant tem- 
perature, which is about the annual mean temperature of the region, 
being maintained. In openings made in the earth, such as mining 
shafts and deep wells, the temperature of the rocks increases about 
1° F. for each 50 to 100 feet in depth. It is therefore reasonable to 
assume that at certain depths below the surface the rocks of the 
earth are at a very high temperature. The temperature of ground 
water depends on the depth at which it lies below the surface. 
Water that is returned to the surface from moderate depths has 
about the mean annual temperature of the region in which it occurs, 
but water that is returned from greater depths has a higher tem- 
perature. Water that penetrates deeply along joints or porous 
strata gradually becomes greatly heated, and when it is returned to 
the surface along a fault plane or other fissure it forms a hot spring. 

1 Meinzer, O. E., Groundwater in Juab, Millard, and Iron counties, Utah; Tj. S. Geol. Survey Water- 
Supply Paper 277, pp. 44-45, 1911. 



26 GROUKD WATER IK SOUTHEASTERK HEVADA. 

In places the rocks beneath the surface have been subjected to 
dynamic action, such as that which causes faulting, folding, and the 
injection of intrusive and extrusive lavas, all of which are accom- 
panied by heat. Where these phenomena have been in progress the 
downward increase in heat may be rapid, and the water that issues 
as hot springs may not come from a very great depth. 

Southeastern Nevada contains a number of springs whose waters 
are warmer than normal. The principal ones are at Lund, Preston, 
Sunnyside, Hot Creek ranch, Hiko, Alamo, Moapa, Geyser, and Las 
Vegas. These springs are usually located near fault planes, but the 
pool springs at Geyser and the large spring near Las Vegas issue from 
unconsolidated sediments. The rocks of the region have been 
greatly faulted and folded and intruded by lava and no doubt con- 
tain fissures that extend to considerable depths. Water circulating 
through these is heated by the normal heat of the earth and probably 
also by the heat generated by the deformation and by volcanic 
activity. 

PERIODIC SPRING. 

'A spring of an unusual type occurs about 3 miles west of Geyser 
post office. This spring, which issues from the unconsolidated sedi- 
ments along a small cliff, probably a recent fault scarp, several miles 
from the edge of the mountains, has a periodic or geyser action. 
Normally its discharge is about 1 second-foot, but about every two 
hours its discharge is doubled or trebled. The temperature of the 
water is only 54° F., and the fluctuation can therefore not be due to 
heat, as in geysers. 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

SUBSTANCES GENERALLY DISSOLVED IN WATER. 

Rain and snow contain little mineral matter except small amounts 
of certain gases and dust. Water percolating through the soil, how- 
ever, dissolves part of the salts with which it comes in contact, and 
hence it always contains some mineral matter. The substances 
which ground waters most commonly carry thus are silica, iron, 
calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, carbonate, bicarbonate, 
sulphate, nitrate, and chlorine. While these substances are in solu- 
tion they are invisible, and unless present in comparatively large quan- 
tities they are imperceptible to the taste. When the water is evapo- 
rated, however, whether by cooking or directly from the surface of the 
soil, its mineral matter is left as an incrustation. The large alkali 
deserts in some parts of the West have been formed by this process, 
as have also the harmful quantities of alkali deposited on some irri- 
gated fields. 






QUALITY OF WATEE. 21 

WATER FOR USE IN BOILERS. 

The chief troubles in steam boilers arising from the use of waters 
containing mineral constituents are corrosion, foaming, and the 
formation of scale. Calcium and magnesium compounds are the 
chief scale-forming ingredients, and sodium and potassium com- 
pounds 'the chief foaming ingredients. Corrosion is due to the action 
of acids on the iron of the boiler. Dole, 1 in discussing the classification 
of water for boiler use, says that the scale and sludge include practi- 
cally all the suspended matter; the silica, probably precipitated as 
Si0 2 ; the iron and aluminum, appearing in the scale as oxide or 
hydrated oxide; the calcium, precipitated principally in the form 
of carbonate and sulphate; and the magnesium, found in the depos- 
its principally as the oxide but partly as the carbonate. Their 
amount is most satisfactorily estimated from field tests by adding 
the total hardness, the turbidity, and an arbitrary amount for silica. 
The estimate should be expressed only to the nearest 10 parts and 
with but two significant figures. 

Dole suggests that waters be classified in respect to scale-forming 
ingredients as follows: 

Classification of waters according to scale-forming constituents. 2 

[Parts per million.] 

Less than 90 Good. 

90 to 200 Fair. 

200 to 430 Poor. 

430 to 680 Bad. 

More than 680 Very bad. 

The principal cause of foaming in boilers is an excess of dissolved 
substances, which increases the surface tension of the liquid, thereby 
reducing the readiness with which the steam bubbles can break. 
As alkali salts remain dissolved in the boiler water while the greater 
portion of the other substances is precipitated, the foaming tend- 
ency is commonly measured by the degree of concentration of the 
alkali salts in solution. Stabler suggests that 2.7 times €he estimated 
total of the alkali bases represents with sufficient accuracy the proba- 
ble amount of the foaming ingredients. 

Classification of waters according to foaming constituents. 3 

[Parts per million.] 

Less than 70 Very good. 

70 to 150 Good. 

150 to 250 Fair. 

250 to 400 Bad. 

More than 400 Very bad. 

1 Dole, R. B., Rapid examination of water: Econ. Geology, vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 353-356, 1911. 

2 Am. Ry. Eng. and Maintenance of Way Assoc. Proc, vol. 5, p. 595, 1904. 

3 Idem, vol. 9,. p. 134, 1908. 



28 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

Corrosion, or "pitting," according to Dole, is caused chiefly by 
the solvent action of acids on the iron of the boiler. Aside from 
free acids, which are rarely encountered in natural waters, acids 
liberated by deposition of magnesium as the hydrate are commonly 
believed to be the important cause of corrosion. It is believed 
that such radicles may pass into equilibrium with other bases in 
solution, displacing equivalent proportions of carbonate and bicar- 
bonate, or they may decompose carbonates that have been precipi- 
tated as scale, or they may combine with the iron of the boiler. The 
certainty of these reactions is not known and can be expressed only 
as a probability, even after the most complete analysis. If the 
acids liberated by the deposition of magnesium exceed the amount 
required to decompose all the carbonate and bicarbonate, corrosion 
is likely to occur; and if they equal or are less than that amount, 
corrosion is not likely to occur. Intermediate conditions are uncer- 
tain. Formulas for expressing these relations have been adapted 
by Dole from Stabler' s scheme: 1 

If 0.033CO 3 + 0.016HCO 3 equals or exceeds 0.082Mg, no corrosion is 
likely to occur. 

If 0.033CO 3 + 0.016HCO 3 is less than 0.082Mg, corrosion is likely to 
occur. 

In these formulas C0 3 , HC0 3 , and Mg represent respectively car- 
bonate, bicarbonate, and magnesium, determined by analysis. 

WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE. 

The amount of dissolved substances permissible in water for 
domestic use depends largely on their nature. Poisonous substances, 
such as arsenic, copper, lead, zinc, and barium, should not be present, 
and iron is permissible only in small amounts. Calcium and magne- 
sium in moderate amounts produce no harmful effects on persons 
using water containing them, but in large amounts they are very 
troublesome in waters used in the lavatory or laundry. They cause 
hardness in water, and their amount is indicated by the quantity of 
soap required to create a lather. 

The most troublesome mineral substances in ground water used 
for domestic purposes are the alkali carbonates. Water containing 
about 200 parts per million of these minerals may be drunk with- 
out harm, but water containing 300 or more parts should be avoided 
by most persons. 

About 400 parts per million of sulphate is perceptible to the taste r 
and water containing as much as 1,500 parts, though potable, is not 
refreshing and would be objectionable to most persons on account 
of the laxative effect of the sulphate. It is also useless for cooking. 

i Stabler, Herman, Some stream waters of western United States: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply 
Paper 274, p. 175, 1911. 



QUALITY OF WATER. 29 

The chloride radicle is perceptible to the taste when 250 parts per 
million is present, but water containing much greater amounts can 
be drunk. The objection to a high content of chlorine in drinking 
water is due to the fact that it increases instead of quenching thirst. 

The large amounts of carbonate, sulphate, and chlorine contained 
in water that may be used in an emergency afford no safe criteria 
for judging the fitness of a water for domestic supply. 

WATER FOR IRRIGATION. 

It has been pointed out that all natural water contains mineral 
substances in solution and that these substances are chiefly calcium, 
magnesium, sodium, potassium, carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, 
and chloride. Certain amounts of these radicles are indispensable 
to the proper growth and development of plants, but excessive 
amounts are inimical to their existence. Many soils contain as much 
of them as is necessary for ordinary crops. When irrigation waters 
are evaporated from the fields the quantity of salts in the soil is 
augmented by the amount held in solution by the water, and the 
continued evaporation of such water may in time ruin the land for 
farming. 

The salts most injurious to cultivated crops are those of sodium 
and potassium, commonly known as the alkalies. The usual chem- 
ical practice is to determine the sodium and potassium together and 
to regard them as sodium, so that the alkali compounds are reported 
as carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, and chloride of sodium. All 
these are not equally toxic to vegetation. Thorough experiments 
conducted in California by Hilgard, Loughridge, and others show 
that the carbonates are the most injurious and the sulphates are the 
least injurious to plants, the chlorides holding an intermediate position. 
Basing his computations on the data gathered by Hilgard and others, 
Stabler 1 found the relative harmfulness of the alkalies to cultures to 
be, sodium as Na 2 C0 3 , 10; sodium as NaCl, 5; sodium as Na 2 S0 4 , 1. 
That is, assuming the toxicity of sodium as Na 2 S0 4 to be 1, the tox- 
icity of sodium as NaCl would be 5, and the toxicity of sodium as 
Na 2 C0 3 would be 10. 

Stabler 1 has deduced formulas for computing, from the results of a 
chemical analysis, or field assay, an alkali index, or " alkali coeffi- 
cient," by which waters may be classified according to their value 
for irrigation. He says : 

The alkali coefficient is a purely arbitrary quantity intended solely to facilitate 
the comparison of waters to be used for irrigation. It may be denned as the depth 
in inches of water which on evaporation would yield sufficient alkali to render a 

1 Stabler, Herman, op. cit., pp. 177-179. 



30 GROUND WATER IN" SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

4-foot depth of soil injurious to the most sensitive plants. Thus if the alkali coeffi- 
cient of a water is found to be 17, 17 inches in depth of that water contains sufficient 
alkali to render injurious to sensitive crops the soil on which it is applied. Whether 
injury would actually result from the application of such a water to any particular 
piece of land, however, depends on methods of irrigation, the crops grown, the char- 
acter of the soil, and drainage conditions, and it should be clearly understood that 
the alkali coefficient in no way takes account of such conditions. 

In the following formulas for computing the alkali coefficient (k) 
of a water Na, CI, and S0 4 represent, respectively, the quantities, in 
parts per million, of sodium, chloride, and sulphate, as determined 
by analysis: 

2040 
If Na — 0.65C1 is zero or negative, k = ™ 

If Na — 0.65Clis positive, but not greater than 0.48SO 4 ,k = ^ T ni 

IfNa-0.65Cl-0.48SO 4 ispositive,k = ^ a _ 032 g 2 _ 043SO< 

If sodium has not been determined, as in a field assay, it may be 
computed by the following formula: 

Na = 0.83CO 3 + 0.4lHCO 3 + 0.71C1 + 0.52SO 4 - 0.5 hardness. 

The following classification, proposed by Stabler, 1 may be used to 
interpret the calculated alkali coefficients : 

Classification of water for irrigation by content of alkali. 

Alkali coefficient (k) : 

Greater than 18 Good. 

6 to 18 Fair. 

1.2 to 6 Poor. 

Less than 1.2 Bad. 

ANALYSES. 

Forty- two samples of water were analyzed for the Geological Survey, 
in connection with the present investigation, by Dr. S. C. Dinsmore. 
Tests were made for silica, iron, calcium, magnesium, and for the 
carbonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, nitrate, and chloride radicles. In 
live of the analyses the amounts of sodium and potassium were 
determined, but in the others they were computed. The total hard- 
ness, scaling, and foaming ingredients, probability of corrosion, and 
alkali coefficient have been calculated by the writer. 

i Op. cit., p. 179. 



201 

258 

1,044 

1,380 
713 
430 
867 
545 

2,827 
617 
267 

318 
455 
563 

2,012 

287 

7, 355 

835 

3,815 

3,266 
218 
324 
283 
255 
340 
315 
306 



587 

3,023 

590 

421 
465 

609 
272 
263 
233 
330 

509 
940 

3,053 
132 



170 
270 
790 
890 
610 
400 
690 
410 
1,600 
520 
270 

270 
400 

500 

1,400 

290 

2,100 
310 
890 

1,910 
250 
370 
260 
290 
320 
290 
280 

230 
370 

650 



200 
350 

350 
340 
290 
250 
220 

410 
570 

1,280 
300 



Si2 



120 
70 

130 

280 
50 
30 
40 
90 

800 
30 
45 

30 
60 
125 

270 



4,100 

495 

2,400 

590 
80 
85 
5 
95 
35 
60 
50 

160 
190 

2,200 

180 

180 

80 

140 

30 



860 

80 

100 
270 

1,300 




-52 



N.C. 

(?) 

C. 
C. 
C. 

(?) 

c. 

(?) 
c. 
c. 

(?) 

(?) 
(?) 
(?) 

c. 

(?) 

c. 

c. 

(?) 
(?) 
(?) 
(?) 
(?) 
(?) 
(?) 

N.C. 
N.C. 

N.C. 
(?) 

N.C. 
N.C. 

N.C. 
(?) 
?) 

1 

c. 
c. 



Fair 

Poor 

Very bad. . 

...do 

Bad 

Poor 

Very bad.. 

Poor 

Very bad 

Bad 

Poor 



km 



Good. 
...do. 
Poor. 
...do. 



..do. 
..do. 
Bad.. 



Very bad.. 
Poor . . . 



Very bad. 

Poor 

Verv bad. 



..do. 

Poor. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 



...do. 
...do. 

Bad. 

Poor. 

Fair. 
Poor. 

..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
..do. 
.do. 

..do. 
Bad. 



..do. 
Fair. 



...do. 
Good. 
Poor . 
Good. 
Poor . 
Fair.. 
Good. 

..do. 
..do. 
..do. 



Poor . . 

Good.. 

Unfit. 
Fak... 
Bad... 

...do.. 
Good.. 
..do.. 
..do.. 
..do.. 
..do.. 
..do.. 
Good.. 

..do... 
Fair... 

Bad... 

Fair... 

Good.. 
..do... 

Fair... 
Good.. 
..do... 
..do... 

..do... 

Poor. . 
Fair... 

Poor.. 

Good.. 



35 

35 

30 

15 

110 

IS 

60 

100 

4.8 

135 

300 

185 

95 
90 



2.1 

16 

3.9 

5.6 

26 

30 

115 

26 

170 

130 

140 

75 
50 

2.5 



13 
55 

23 

155 

1,000 

315 

^0 



1.4 

930 



Good. 
...do. 
...do. 

Fair.. 

Good. 
...do. 
...do. 
...do. 

Poor. 

Good. 
...do. 

...do. 
...do. 
...do. 

Fair.. 

Good. 

Poor. 
Fair.. 
Poor . 

...do. 
Good. 
...do. 
...do. 
...do. 
...do. 
...do. 
...do. 

...do.. 
...do.. 

Poor. 

Good. 

Fair.. 
Good.. 

...do.., 
..do.. 

...do.. 
..do.. 

...do.. 

...do.. 
Fail-.. 

Poor. 
Good. 



Moderate. 

...do 

High 

...do 

...do 

Moderate. 

.3£r:::: 

Very high 

High 

Moderate. 

..do 

...do 

High 



...do 

Moderate. 

Very high 

High 

A r ery high 

...do 

M oder ate. 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

High 



Very high. 
High 



Moderate. 
..do 



High 

Moderate.. 

..do 

..do 

..do 



...do. 
High. 



Very high. 
Low 



so 

.a « 

a 



Ca-C0 3 . 

Do. 
Ca-SOi. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Ca-C0 3 . 
Ca-SO,. 

Do. 
Ca-C0 3 . 

Do. 

Ca-SO,. 
Do. 

Do. 

Ca-CO £ . 

Na-SOi. 
Do. 
Do. 

Ca-SO«. 
Ca-C0 3 . 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Ca-CC'3. 

Do. 
Do. 

Na-SO<. 

Ca-COs. 

Na-COo. 
Ca-C0 3 . 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Na-C0 3 . 
Ca-COs. 

Do. 
Ca-SO a. 

Na-SC-4. 
Ca-C0 3 . 



n. Rept. State engineer Nevada, p. 249, 1913). 



F. W. Eglington 

W.S.Park . 

Clark & Ronnow 

J. F.Miller 

Carey .Net, list 10 

R. O. Barnsley 

E. A. Wixen 

Olaik Counly Land r<. 

A. D. Bishop 

B. R. Jefferson 



Las Vegas Syndics 

Frank Clifl 

Arden Plaster Co. 



Analyses and classification of water from southeastern Nevada. 
[Parts per million. Analyst, S. C. Dinsmore, Agricultural Experiment Station, Reno, Nev.] 



Clark County Land Co 

Muddy Valley Irrigation Co 

San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake 
R. R. Co. 

Levi Syphus 

.1. F. Wambolt 

Pioche Waterworks Co 



Valley Saline Co . 



Send) 



Ira MueFarland. 



Las Vegas & Tonopah R. R. 



.Sen i'edro, Los Angele 
R.R.Co. 

Bryant Wliitinore 

Thompson i Gunnel... 



N W. J sec. 24,T. 20 S.,R. 60 E 
NW.isec.22,T.20S..R.61E 
NW.J sec. 1, T. 22 S.,R. 61 E 

Se&M,"T."2iS.Vii."6iB"" 

SW. J- sec. 27, T. 21 S.,R. 61 E 
NW.|soc.lO,T.22S.,R.61E 
N W. i sec. 3, T. 21 S.,R. 62 E 
Sec. 28, T. 21 S., K. 62 E... 
SE.isec.30,T.21S.,R.62E 
Sec. 30, T. 20 S., R. 61 E... 

NE. } sec. 

Sec. 27, T. 

Sec. 28, T. 21 S., R. 62 E... 

Sec. 27, T. 17 S., R. 59 E... 

N W. i see. 5, T. 21 S.,R. 62 E 

Narrows i iclow Moapa 

St. Thomas 



Sec. 18, T. ON., R. 61 E. 
Hiko , 

See. 10,T.5S.,R.60E.... 



Railroad Valley. 



Sepl. 14,11)12 
Sept. 16, 1912 
Sept. 17,1812 



Sept. 18, 1912 

Dec. 24,1912 

Dec. 8, 1912 

Dec. 24,1912 
Oct. 1,1912 
Sept. 30, 1912 

Sept. 28, 1912 
Oct. 14,1912 
Oct. 17,1912 
Oct. 5,1912 
Oct. 26,1912 



....do 

Nov. 20,1912 

Nov. 21, 1912 

Oct. 29,1912 

Oct. 31,1912 



Dec. 14,1912 



e'uuoms'ood 
Spring. 

Grapevine 
Spring. 

Corn Creek 
Spring. 

Well 



Spring 

Warmsprin:; 
Cold spring . 
Hot spring . . 

C P r r v!-t'ar 
Spring. 

Ash Sp, in-.. 
I r r i g a tion 

ditch. 
fahranngai 

Lake. 
Duekwater 

Creek. 
I-'oiashwel! . 
Blue Eagle 

W&... 



S lliehes. 
IL'TlaYles 



s inches.. 
12 inehe.. 
Ill inehe-.. 



% 






590 


c. 


95 


\v> 


60 

50 


(?) 
(?) 


160 
190 


N.C. 

N.C. 


2,200 


N.C. 


180 


(?) 


180 

80 


N.C. 
N.C. 


140 
30 


X60 
80 


N.C. 

(?) 

1 


100 
270 


t? 


1,300 


C. 

c. 



J 


! 


o a 
















g 


I 


cy 


s 


Good. 




...do. 




...do. 


High 


Fair. 


..do 








Mode,:, p. 


...do. 


High 


Poor. 






nigh..:... 


...do.. 


.Modi-rale.. 


...do. 


do 


...do. 




...do. 


High 


Fair , . 


...do 


Good. 


Moderate.. 


Poor. 


Vary high. 


Poor. 


\ /re high 


...do. 


...do 






...do. 


...do 




...do 




{• 


iv 


:::doV.:::: 


do 


...do 


...do... 


High 


Poor.. 


Very high. 


Good.. 


High 


Fair... 




Good.. 


...do 


..do... 


High 


..do... 




..do... 


...do 






..do... 


...do 


..do... 


...do 


Fair... 


High 


Poor.. 


Very high. 



50014°— WSP 365— 15. (To face p. 30.) 



oN. C, Noncorrosive: C, 

&Na,ll; K,6. 

cNa, 36; K, 10. 

<*See tahle of discharge measurements, 

:Na,20; K,5.0. 



(?), 



/Measurement, ljv W. M. Kearney. Si ale engineer (Bienn. Kepi. Si ate engioeei Nevada, p. 249, 1913). 
e Estimated. 
iNa, 45; K, 14. 
i See p. 79. 
>Na,21; K.9.7. 



GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 31 

WATER SUPPLY BY AREAS. 

LAS VEGAS DRAINAGE BASIN. 
LOCATION AND EXTENT. 

Las Vegas Valley, which can be reached by the San Pedro, Los 
Angeles & Salt Lake and the Las Vegas & Tonopah railroads, is a 
dipper-shaped basin lying in the central part of Clark County, Nev., 
and comprising about 600 square miles of arable land (Pis. I, in 
pocket, and II). The name, which is of Spanish origin, meaning u the 
Meadows," was first used by the Spanish explorers on account of the 
patches of grass land near the springs in the valley. The axis of 
the valley, which extends nearly north and south, is about 60 miles 
long. The broadest part of the valley is in the vicinity of Las Vegas. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

Las Vegas Valley occupies a structural trough practically sur- 
rounded by mountains, the only exit for surplus waters being through 
Las Vegas Wash. (See PL II.) It is bounded on the east by a prac- 
tically continuous mountain wall formed by the Las Vegas, Sheep, 
and Desert ranges, and on the west by the Spring Mountain and the 
Pintwater ranges. The Spring Mountain Range rises to an imposing 
altitude, culminating in Charleston Peak at 11,910 feet above sea 
level. On the south the valley is bounded by mountains to which 
no names have been applied but which rise 3,000 to 4,000 feet above 
the valley. On the northeast Las Vegas Pass leads into Dry Lake 
Valley, and on the northwest a low alluvial divide leads into Indian 
Spring Valley. Las Vegas Wash, the only outlet for surplus waters, 
descends to Colorado River from the southeastern part of the valley 
through a rock canyon. 

Lee, 1 who has studied the geology of the western Arizona region, 
concludes that the gorge of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado was 
eroded during three periods of downcutting, separated by long periods 
of nonerosion, all in the Pleistocene epoch. 

The erosional features of Las Vegas Valley seem to confirm Lee's 
theory. Three terraces, indicating three periods of erosion, are promi- 
nently developed. Unfortunately the contour interval used in the 
topographic survey of the Las Vegas quadrangle is too great to show 
these features, but they are shown by means of hachures on Plate II. 

The most prominent terrace lies just east of the town of Las Vegas 
and bounds the low-lying bottom land in the eastern part of the 
valley. Several important springs issue from the valley fill along its 
edge. It is prominently developed at the Kyle (or Park), Stewart, 

1 Lee, W. T., Geologic reconnaissance of a part of western Arizona: U, S. Geol. Survey Bull. 352, pp. 
62-66, 1908. 



32 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

and Las Vegas ranches, whence it swings eastward around Ladd's 
resort, then southward past Indian, Fourmile, Cow, and Grapevine 
springs, and is again prominently developed about 2 miles east of 
Mesquite Springs. The terrace at Las Vegas Spring, which is slightly 
higher than the one east of the town, seems to grade insensibly into 
it, but it may have been formed at an intermediate period. 

The next prominent terrace has its best development at the small 
spring about 1J miles west of Las Vegas Spring, but it is also fairly 
well developed 2 J miles northwest of Eglington's ranch. (See PL II.) 

The next terrace is well developed at Tule Springs and seems to be 
present along the north side of the valley to Dike station on the rail- 
road. White clay, which outcrops at its margin, contains the mas- 
todon and fresh- water remains that are mentioned on page 35. 

Erosion and deposition have tended to obliterate the terraces, espe- 
cially the two higher ones, which were not seen except at the places 
noted. 

The northern part of the valley, north of Owens, once contained a 
lake, which has been drained by the channel leading from the vicinity 
of Owens to Tule Springs. This lake was probably short lived and 
carved only slight shore features, which have been obliterated in most 
places. They are best exposed in the northwest part of the valley, 
which now contains a play a or "dry" lake. During most of the year 
the ground is dry, hard, and glistening, but at times it is covered by 
a few inches of water. 

GEOLOGY. 

BEDROCK FORMATIONS. 

The Las Vegas, Sheep, and Desert ranges are composed of rocks of 
Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous age. 1 
The strata, which consist of limestone, gypsum, sandstone, quartzite, 
and slates, and are very complexly folded and faulted, form, accord- 
ing to Spurr, a northeast-southwest syncline. The Spring Mountain 
and the Pintwater ranges, which form, the western boundary, are com- 
posed of rocks of Cambrian, Carboniferous, Jurassic, and Triassic ages. 
The Paleozoic strata consist of limestone, quartzite, and shale; and 
the Mesozoic of limestone, gypsum, sandstone, shale, and conglom- 
erate. The rocks in these mountains have been greatly folded and 
faulted. Sections of Spring Mountain (see fig. 3) adapted from Spurr' s 
report 2 afford a comprehensive idea of the general structure. 

1 Spurr, J. E., Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel: XJ. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 20S, 
pp. 155-159, 1903. 

2 Idem, rig. 22, p. 176. 




Contour interval OOOfeet 
MAP OF LAS VEGAS VALLEY, NEV. 



LAS VEGAS DRAINAGE BASIN, 



33 



The mountains on the south are com- 
posed principally of limestones, probably of 
Carboniferous age, which clip to the south. 

The terraces above mentioned seem to 
have been produced by erosion in the 
Pleistocene epoch. The fresh-water and 
mastodon remains in the upper and oldest 
terrace indicate that the unconsolidated 
sediments were deposited in a closed basin. 
Deposition was then interrupted during a 
humid stage and the valley was excavated, 
leaving the highest terrace as a shelf or 
platform. This stage of erosion was 
Drought to a close by a climatic change 
which began an arid stage not unlike the 
one now prevailing in this region. During 
this stage the valley was again filled with 
debris, but not to the level of the oldest 
terrace. The arid stage of deposition was 
stopped by a humid stage, during which 
the valley was again excavated. This 
process was again repeated and the low- 
est terrace was formed, since which time 
the climatic conditions have been more 
uniformly dry and no erosion has taken 
place. 

These stages of erosion and deposition 
may have been contemporaneous with 
glacial and interglacial stages in the 
northern United States and Canada and 
also with the fluctuations in the water 
level in Lake Bonneville and Lake Lahon- 
tan in the Great Basin. 



VALLEY FILL. 



Character and depth. — The valley has 
been partly filled with debris washed from 
the surrounding mountains. These un- 
consolidated sediments extend to an un- 
known depth, the deepest well, which goes 
down about 1,100 feet, apparently ending 
in valley fill. The following logs of wells, 
reported by the drillers, show the ma- 
terials penetrated : 

50014°— wsp 365—15 3 



34 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

Log of Las Vegas Artesian Water Syndicate well No. 1 (NW. corner of NE. \ sec. 21, T. 

20 S., R. 61 E.). 

Feet. 

Lime 0-28 

First water at 28 feet. 

Lime and clay 28-40* 

Hard cemented lime 40-50 

Lime and clay mixed 50-70 

Hard cemented lime 70-85 

Clay mixed with lime 85-105 

Very hard material 105-110 

Clay and lime mixed 110-130 

Limerock 130-145 

Clay and soft lime 145-179 

Water at 174 feet flowed. 

Hard streak 179-185 

Lime and clay 185-189 

Hard rock 189-199 

Bottom of 12-inch casing at 194 feet. 

Clay and limerock 199-203 

Hard limerock, porous 203-211 

Clay with rock 211-213 

Bottom of 10-inch casing at 214 feet. 

Hard streak 213-225 

Rock 225-230 

Sand and pebbles 230-236 

Log of Las Vegas Artesian Water Syndicate well No. 3 (NW. \ SE. \ sec. 21, T. 20 S., 

R. 61 E.). 

Feet. 

Soil 0-12 

White clay 12-22 

Limerock 22-28 

Water. 

White clay (talc) 28-80 

Sand and clay 80-85 

White clay 85-100 

Yellow sand and clay 100-105 

White clay 105-108 

Red clay and sand 108-115 

White clay 115-120 

Yellow clay 120-130 

White clay 130-135 

Yellow clay and sand 135-185 

Limerock 185-190 

Yellow to red clay 190-230 

Sandrock 230-235 

Red clay 235-268 

The well is cased to 27 feet. 



LAS VEGAS DRAINAGE BASIN. 35 

Log of Clark County Land Co.'s well (NW. { sec. 5, T. 21 S., R. 62 E.). 

Feet. 

Soil 0-14 

Hardpan 14-34 

Water at 18 feet. 

Yellow clay 34-50 

Streaks of white and yellow clay 50-75 

Red sandy clay 75-170 

Gray hard clay 170-190 

Gray soft clay 190-200 

Hard shell 200-202 

Softer clay 202-205 

Red clay, sandy 205-268 

Yellow clay, sticky 268-288 

Yellow clay, sandy • 288-385 

Sandstone 385-390 

Yellow clay 390-395 

Sand 395-397 * 

Yellow clay 397^00 

Sand and water 400-401 

Yellow clay, soft and sticky 401-496 

Hard shell 496-497 

Yellow clay, sticky 497-510 

Water 510 

Sand, fine 546 

Water stands in hole 13 feet below surface. 

Age.— The beginning of the deposition of the valley fill in the Las 
Vegas basin probably dates back to Tertiary time, when the major 
topography of the general region began to take form. The presence 
of mastodon remains in several parts of the valley indicates that the 
valley was receiving deposits in Tertiary time. Spurr, 1 quoting notes 
collected by K. B. Rowe, says: 

From the valley some distance west of Las Vegas mastodon teeth were collected. 
About midway between Corn Creek and Tule Springs mastodon teeth and bones have 
been found * * * in a clay bank some 10 or 15 feet high. * * * 

The valley between Las Vegas, Tule Springs, and Corn Creek seems to be filled with 
lake deposits. About Tule Springs, and from there up the valley, are probably the 
remnants of an old dry lake bed or playa. The deposits do not have the appearance 
of the Tertiary lake deposits but resemble exactly the clay deposits in the present dry 
lakes. Underlying these is a gravel or talus deposit. 

The presence of fossils of very small fresh-water pelecypods and 
gastropods in the beds containing the mastodon remains indicates 
that the debris was deposited in a shallow fresh-water lake. 

There are good exposures of the unconsolidated sediments, but with 
the exception of the mastodon remains mentioned above there are no 
fossils to give a clue to the age of the valley fill. 

1 Spurr, J. E., Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 208, 
p. 157, 1903, 



36 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

VEGETATION. 

The plants in Las Vegas Valley are largely those found in other 
dry semitropical parts of the United States. Except where the 
ground water is near the surface, shadscale "and creosote are the domi- 
nant types. Where ground water is found at shallow depths, mes- 
quite, willow, greasewood, arrow weed, and quail brush predominate. 
On the high, dry slopes the giant yucca, Spanish bayonet, prickly 
pear, and thorn bush are found. In the northern part of the valley a 
species of saltbush, Atriplex Tiymenelytra, locally known as "desert 
holly," is found, which is- beginning to have commercial value for use 
in funeral decorations. 

SOIL. 

- The soil in Las Vegas Valley is in most places a sandy loam. On 
the alluvial slopes and near the mountains considerable quantities of 
gravel and coarse bowlders lie on the surface. In the low central 
part of the valley the wind has produced a large number of gypseous 
sand dunes, which are a serious detriment to agriculture. Over a 
considerable area in the low part of the valley the soil consists of fine- 
grained pale gypseous material that has a loose, powdery consistency 
when dry and is underlain by a dense, clayey subsoil. This soil is of 
doubtful value for agricultural purposes. 

The soil throughout the valley contains considerable gypsum, which 
can be observed as white flakes or grains that to a person unaccus- 
tomed to such phenomena have the appearance of white alkali. In 
the table on page 37 are given analyses of the water-soluble constitu- 
ents of seven samples of soil in the valley. These analyses were made 
by Dr. S. C. Dinsmore, chemist of the Nevada Agricultural Experiment 
Station. Tests were made for the carbonate (C0 3 ), bicarbonate 
(HCOg), and chloride (CI) radicles, but not for the sulphate radicle. 
The chloride and the sulphate form the so-called white alkali and the 
carbonate forms the black alkali. 

The amount of alkali that can be tolerated by plants has been the 
subject of much investigation by agricultural experts, who have 
determined fairly definite limits. The amount permissible, however, 
is dependent on related conditions, such as the climate and content 
of other salts. Crops can be grown in a higher percentage of alkali 
in Montana, for instance, than in southern California. Crops can also 
be grown in a higher percentage of alkali where gypsum forms a large 
part of the soil than in a soil where gypsum is absent or is present in 
only small quantities. The highest amounts of alkali in soil in which 
most ordinary crops can be grown successfully appear to be about as 
follows: Sodium chloride (NaCl), from 0.25 to 0.50 per cent of the 
total soil; sodium carbonate (Na 2 C0 3 ), from 0.05 to 0.20 per cent; 
and sodium sulphate (Na 2 S0 4 ), from 0.50 to 1 per cent. The presence 



LAS VEGAS DRAINAGE BASIN. 



37 



of gypsum in the Las Vegas Valley has, however, an ameliorating 
effect on the alkali, and it is possible that crops may be grown'iShere 
in soil containing even higher percentages of alkali than those given. 
Samples Nos. 1, 3, and 5 of the following table were taken from 
alfalfa fields; Nos. 2, 4, and 6 from gardens; and No. 7 from unculti- 
vated land. The chloride content in 2, 4, 5, and 7 and the carbonate 
content in 1 and 6 are in excess of the amount usually permissible 
in a nongypseous soil. Crops were grown successfully on the land 
from which 3, 5, and 6 were taken, probably because of the antitoxic 
effect of gypsum. 

Determinations of soluble carbonate, bicarbonate, and chlorine in soil of Las Vegas, Nev. 

[Percentages of total soil.] 





Owner. 


Location. 


Soil within 1 foot of 
surface. 


Soil between depths of 
1 and 4 feet. 


Sample. 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(C0 3 ). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Chlo- 
rine 
(CI). 


Carbon- 
ate 
radicle 
(C0 3 ). 


Bicar- 
bonate 
radicle 
(HCO3). 


Chlo- 
rine 
(CI). 


1 

2 


W. S. Park 

do 

Clark County 
Land Co. 


NW. JNE. isec. 22, T. 

20S.„R.62E. 
do. 






0.252 

.075 


0.025 

.620 





0.201 


0.035 


3 


Sec. 4, T, 21 S., R.62E.. 





.075 


.128 


4 


NW. i sec. 1, T. 22 S., 

R.62E. 
NW. J sec. 11, T. 22 S., 

R. 61 E. 
SE. J SE. J sec. 21, T. 

20S.,R. 61 E. 
Sec. 29, T. 21 S., R. 

62 E. 








.117 
.100 
.311 
.154 


1.93 
.549 
.023 
.409 




5 

6 

a7 


Clark & Ronnow.. 
H. L.Martin 






.154 
.122 


.198 
.023 













a Surface crust. 

The following is a complete analysis of a marl composing the soil, 
which was collected during the excavation of the basement for the 
Thomas Building in Las Vegas : 

Analysis of marl excavated under the Thomas Building, Las Vegas, Nev. 
[Herman Harmes, State and city chemist, Salt Lake City, Utah, analyst.] 

Silica (Si0 2 ) 10.00 

Alumina (A1 2 3 ) " 3. 58 

Iron (Fe) 09 

Calcium (Ca) 30. 55 

Magnesium (Mg) 2. 25 

Sodium (Na) : .007 

Potassium (K) 000 

Carbonate radicle (C0 3 ) . . 51. 27 

Sulphate (S0 4 ) .' Trace . 

Chlorine (CI) 013 

Moisture at 240° F 13 

Volatile and organic matter 1. 98 

10 



99.97 



38 



GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 



RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE. 

Rainfall data were collected at Las Vegas for the United States 
Weather Bureau from 1895 to 1900 and from 1907 to 1910. The 
annual precipitation for the five years for which the records are com- 
plete ranges from 1.64 inches to 5.35 inches, with an average annual 
precipitation of 3.39 inches. (See table below.) 

The average monthly precipitation is low — in only one month 
exceeding one-half inch. The least rain falls during May and June 
and the most falls in August. The heavy rains are probably more 
often local, consisting of storms or cloudbursts, than general and 
widespread, although the rainfall stations are too widely separated 
to determine this fact. The greatest precipitation recorded for any 
month is in September, 1908, when 2 inches of rain fell. Several 
times since the records were begun periods of three months have 
elapsed with practically no rainfall. The amount of moisture in the 
soil produced by rains is not sufficient to be of much benefit to grow- 
ing crops. 

Monthly and annual precipitation, in inches, at Las Vegas, Nev. 
[" Tr." indicates a precipitation of 0.01 inch or less.] 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


An- 
nual. 


1895 












0.00 
.00 
.00 
.20 
.25 
.30 


Tr. 
0.61 
Tr. 
.05 
Tr. 
.23 


0.00 
.97 
.76 
.40 
.00 
.10 


0.00 
Tr. 
.02 
.00 
.00 
.00 
Tr. 

2.00 
.84 
.12 


0.39 
.26 
.16 
.00 

.28 


0. 12 
.24 
.00 
Tr. 
.66 


0.00 

.38 
.28 
.20 
.00 




1896. 


0.11 

1.71 

.51 

.40 

.00 


0.06 

1.67 

.08 

.00 

.00 


0.36 
.50 
Tr. 
.00 
.15 


Tr. 

0.03 
.00 
.44 

1.42 


0.25 
.22 

.20 
.00 
.00 


3.24 


1897.. 


5.35 


1898 


1.64 


1899 


2.03 


1900 




1907 


.46 
.48 
.00 


.00 
.00 
.70 


.00 
Tr. 
1.05 
1.00 




1908.. 


.18 
.40 


.09 
1.12 


.02 
.71 
.30 


Tr. 
" Tr" 


.01 
Tr. 
.00 


Tr. 
.00 
.00 


.60 

.18 
.65 


1.35 

1.78 
Tr. 


4.73 


1909.. 




1910 
















Average 


.47 


.43 


.25 


.27 


.08 


.08 


.29 


.59 


.29 


.25 


.21 


.32 


3.39 



A subtropical climate prevails in Las Vegas Valley. The growing 
season generally covers nine months, and the winters are usually mild. 
During the years 1895. to 1900 and 1907 to 1909, during which obser- 
vations were made, the highest temperature recorded was 115° F., 
the lowest was 11° F., and the mean annual temperature was 56.8° F. 
On account of the aridity of the climate neither the heat of summer 
nor the cold of winter causes as much discomfort as in more humid 
climates. The high Spring Mountain Range, on the west of the val- 
ley, causes the temperature to vary widely. In summer, when the 
thermometer often stands above 100° F. during the day, it may fall 
nearly to freezing during the night. This wide variation in the 
annual and monthly temperatures is shown in the following table: 



LAS VEGAS DRAINAGE BASIN. 

Temperature (°F.) at Las Vegas, Nev. 



39 





Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


An- 
nual. 




11 

41.4 
66 


78 
11 
44 
67 


91 
16 

49.5 
75 


91 
26 

57.9 
65 


101 
32 
65 
69 


Ill 
35 

74.2 
76 


115 
50 
80.7 
65 


110 
47 

78.6 
63 


107 
38 
70.8 
69 


94 
29 

59.2 
65 


83 
14 
42.6 


73 
12 

39.3 
61 


115 


Minimum 


11 




56.8 




104 












GROUND WATER. 

SPRINGS. 















In several parts of Las Vegas Valley springs issue from the valley 
fill, with few exceptions from or near the bases of the terraces 
described on pages 31-32. Tule Springs, about 12 miles northwest 
of Las Vegas, issue from mounds a short distance from the highest 
terrace. They partake of the nature of mound springs, but they 
are probably associated in some way with the unconformity along 
the terrace. The largest of these springs has a discharge of 0.47 
second-foot, as measured by a standard Cippoletti weir. Las Vegas 
Springs, which issue from the foot of a small terrace about 3 miles 
west of Las Vegas, have a reported discharge of 5.75 second-feet. 
Part of the water is used for the domestic and industrial supply of the 
town and part for irrigation on the Las Vegas ranch. The tempera- 
ture of the water as it issues from the ground is reported by Peale 1 
to be 73° F. A number of springs issue from the foot of the lowest 
terrace. (See p. 32.) Those at the Kyle ranch flow about 0.9 second- 
foot. Indian, Fourmile, Mesquite, Cow, and Grapevine springs each 
has a small discharge, which is used primarily for stock. Corn 
Creek Springs, which is a typical mound spring, has a discharge of 
0.2 second-foot. Extending north from this spring for about 1J 
miles is a series of mounds that appear to have once been the sites 
of knoll springs which have been closed. The presence of shallow 
water is shown by the luxuriant growths of grapevines, weeds, and 
other plants. The water from Cottonwood Spring, in the southwest 
part of the valley, is piped to Arden, Sloan, and Jean, where it is 
used for boiler and domestic purposes. 



WELLS. 



Distribution and character. — About 125 wells have been sunk into 
the valley fill. Water is found at shallow depths on the bench on 
which Las Vegas is situated. In September, 1912, the water was 
standing 12 feet below the surface in the well belonging to Frank 
Cliff, in "Old Town," and 9 feet below the surface in the well belong- 



1 Peale, A. C, Lists and analyses of the mineral springs of the United States: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 
32, pp. 197-202, 1886. 



40 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

ing to H. G. Helm. The deep wells that have been sunk on this 
bench have encountered water at similar depths. A second water- 
bearing stratum is reported in most of the wells about 50 to 60 feet 
below the surface. Usually these nonflowing waters are cased off 
when artesian wells are sunk. 

About 100 deep wells have been sunk into the valley fill in the 
search for artesian water. Of this number about 75 flow and 25 do 
not. None of the wells, however, has failed to penetrate water- 
bearing beds. The deep wells range from 150 to 1,150 feet in depth 
and from 3 to 12 inches in diameter, but most of them are 8 inches 
in diameter. (See PL III.) 

Most of the flowing wells are in the central part of the basin but 
not on the lowest land. This fact seems to indicate that most of the 
ground water comes from the Spring Mountains and that these 
mountains have been the source of the sediments in the valley. The 
material beneath the low-lying land in the eastern part of the valley 
seems to be finer and less pervious to water than that underlying 
the bench on which the artesian wells are obtained. The area in 
which there were flowing wells in 1912 (see Pis. I and II) covers about 
65 square miles, but there has not been enough drilling in all parts 
of the valley to determine definitely the limits of the area in which 
flows could be obtained. Drilling may show that flows can be 
obtained farther west than is now known. 

Construction. — Most of the artesian wells were drilled with the 
ordinary percussion drill, but a few have been sunk with hydraulic 
rigs. The former is regarded with favor by the drillers, because it is 
better adapted for penetrating gravel and bowlder beds than the 
latter. The holes are usually lined with iron casing to a point a few 
feet above the " first flow/' and in a few wells smaller casing has been 
inserted below the first water-bearing stratum. 

Cost. — The cost of drilling is approximately $1.25 a foot for the 
first 100 feet, with an increase of 50 cents a foot for each succeeding 
100 feet. The casing ordinarily used is iron screw coupling. Eight- 
inch casing of this type costs about 75 cents a foot. 

Capacity. — The volume of water flowing from 26 artesian wells was 
measured by means of a Cippoletti weir and was found to range from 
0.04 to 1.37 second-feet, or from 18 to 615 gallons a minute. The 
greatest discharge comes from wells on the west side of the artesian 
area. The natural flow of many of the wells has diminished, more 
especially those in the southern part of the artesian area, where the 
water in several wells has ceased flowing and in one has sunk to a 
level about 6 feet below the surface of the ground. 

The decrease in the discharge may to some extent be due to care- 
lessly letting the water run to waste but is probably more largely 
due to improper methods in casing. It is known that water escapes 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 365 PLATE 




A. EGLINGTON'S FLOWING WELL. 




B. BARNSLEY'S FLOWING WELL. 
TWO TYPES OF FLOWING WELLS IN LAS VEGAS VALLEY, NEV. 



LAS VEGAS DRAINAGE BASIN. 41 

around the outside of the casing in several wells when they are shut off. 
In the Eglington well (PI. Ill, A), which has a larger flow than any other 
well in the valley, the water escapes in this way and has seeped into 
the gravel beds near the surface to such an extent that the railroad 
. grade below the farm is rendered unsafe for heavy trains. A large 
proportion of the wells are cased for only a part of their depth, and 
as a result much valuable water is wasted. (See p. 23.) 

QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 

Analyses were made of 17 samples of water (Nos. 1 to 17) from 
wells and springs in Las Vegas Valley, the results of which are given 
in the table opposite page 26. The waters have, in general, only a 
moderate content of mineral matter. The total solids in the samples 
analyzed ranged from 251 to 7,355 parts per million. The most 
abundant base in solution is calcium in all the waters except No. 17, 
in which sodium predominates. Sulphate predominates in all the 
waters except Nos. 1, 2, 8, 11, 12, and 16, in which bicarbonate is 
most abundant. Chloride and nitrate are low in all except Nos. 9 
and 17. The total hardness ranges from 142 to 1,865 parts per 
million. All the waters, except No. 1, are poor for boiler use on 
account of the high content of scaling ingredients and the tend- 
ency of most of them to corrode the boiler. Nine of the samples 
have been classified as good for domestic use, the chief detrimental 
feature of the others being their large content of sulphate. The 
alkali coefficients (Stabler's) range from 2 to 300, 13 of the waters 
being classified as "good" for irrigation, 2 as "fair," and 2 as "poor." 

IRRIGATION WITH GROUND WATER. 

Probably most of the water that sinks into the gravelly upper 
slopes bordering the mountains finds its way into Colorado River, 
only a small proportion issuing as springs or being evaporated from 
the surface. A large part of this surplus ground water can be re- 
covered through wells for irrigation. A larger supply of water could 
probably be obtained from artesian wells by more judicious casing, 
but even with this precaution the area that could be irrigated with 
artesian water would be rather small. If many wells are drilled in 
an artesian basin some of them cease to flow, and the flow of others 
is greatly diminished. In 1912 less than one section of land was 
irrigated from all the artesian wells in the valley, approximately 100 
in number. 

Pumping probably offers better prospects for obtaining irrigation 
water than do artesian flows. In 1912 three pumping plants were 
in use in the valley. Two are on the Clark County Land Co. ranch, 
in the low-lying eastern part of the valley, where artesian water can 



42 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

not be obtained, and one is on the Clark & Ronnow ranch, where it 
is used to supplement the natural flow. 

The pumping plants on the Clark County Land Co. ranch, also 
known as the Winterwood ranch, were not in operation at the time 
the ranch was visited in 1912, but the following information is fur- 
nished by O. E. Meinzer, of the United States Geological Survey, who 
was at the place in August, 1913. 

About 14 wells have been drilled on this ranch, on sees. 3, 4, and 5 ; 
T. 21 S., R. 62 E. Most of them are about 180 feet deep, but one was 
sunk to a depth variously reported between 480 and 680 feet. Water- 
bearing beds are reported between 60 and 70 feet, at 80 feet, and at 
180 feet, but not at lower levels. In the 6 wells that were measured 
the normal water level was found to range between 21 and 28 feet 
below the surface, except in the deep well, in which water was not 
reached with a 100-foot tape. Whether the low water level in the 
deep well was due to the water-bearing beds being cased off or to the 
low head of deep-seated waters was not ascertained. 

Two of the wells, one near the southeast corner of the SE. \ NW. \ 
sec. 3 and the other near the northwest corner of sec. 4, are equipped 
with centrifugal pumps and 15-horsepower gasoline engines. They 
were pumped almost continuously during a considerable part of the 
irrigation season of 1913, but were not in operation in the latter part 
of August. The well on sec. 3 is equipped with a horizontal centrif- 
ugal pump installed near the water level, 21 feet below the surface, 
and is reported by the foreman of the ranch to have been pumped 
at the rate of 60 miner's inches (about 600 gallons a minute). The 
plant was out of repair when examined in August, 1913. The well on 
sec. 4 is equipped with a centrifugal or rotary pump inserted in the 
casing at a depth that was not ascertained and is reported by the 
foreman to have been tested at 72 miner's inches (about 700 gallons 
a minute). It was seen in operation for several hours, during which 
time it. yielded approximately the amount reported, but there were 
no f acilities for accurate measurement. In a disconnected well about 
100 feet distant the water level stood 28 feet below the surface before 
pumping was begun and dropped about 2 feet when the pump was in 
operation. The water is not of bad quality for irrigation, as is proved 
by the fact that it has no saline taste. With distillate at 16 cents a 
gallon the two plants were operated at a cost for fuel of about $3 an 
acre-foot of water. The cost for attendance, repairs, and lubricating 
oil was not ascertained. 

About 100 acres of various crops were planted in the spring of 
1913, but although water was applied in ample amounts the results 
were disappointing. The difficulty was evidently with the soil, which 
is of the clayey, gypseous type. Whether this soil can be made 



DUCK VALLEY. 



43 



productive by more skillful cultural and irrigation methods remains to 
be demonstrated. 

On the Clark £ Ronnow ranch a pit was dug IS feet deep to the 
first water-bearing stratum by the side of an artesian well, and a hole 
was drilled hi the bottom of the pit to the second water-bearing bed. 
A 25-horsepower Fairbanks-Morse gasoline engine and a Xo. 5 verti- 
cal shaft centrifugal pump are used. The pump is so arranged that 
water can be drawn from either the artesian well or the pit, or from 
both simultaneously. A partial test of the plant was made in Decem- 
ber. 1912. It was impossible to measure the drawdown in the pit on 
account of the small size of the hole into which the suction pipe 
extends. A good crop of alfalfa was raised on this ranch in 1913. 

Pumping test of the Clarl; &- Ronnov: well. 



Source. 


Discharge. 




Time re- 
quired to 
yield 1 
acre-foot. 


Depth to 

water. 


Owner's 
estimate 
of cost 
per hour 
for fuel 
and oil. 


Cost per 
acre-foot. 


Pit... 


Sec.-ft. 

0.63 

.96 

1.37 

.71 


Galls, per 

min. 

254 

'432 

615 

320 


Hours. 
19 
12| 

17 


Feet. 
16.4 


$0.20 


S3. 80 


Pit and arresian well 

Natural flow of artesian well 













VIRGIN RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN. 

MEADOW VALLEY DBAIXAGE BASIX. 

LOCATION AND AREA. 

The Meadow Valley drainage basin is about 145 miles long and 
drains an area of about 3.600 square miles. It heads at the north 
end of Duck Valley, but is joined above Panaca by Ursine Valley and 
at Caliente by Clover Valley. South of Caliente it descends for the 
most part through a rock canyon and joins Muddy River south of 
Moapa. (See PL I.) 

DTJCK VALLEY. 
LOCATION AND EXTENT. 

Duck Valley occupies a structural trough lying between the Ely 
and Schell Creek ranges on the west and the Cedar and Fortification 
ranges on the east. It is 65 to 70 miles long, ranges from 6 to 12 
miles in width, and comprises about 400 square miles of arable land. 
It is most easily reached over the San Pedro. Los Angeles & Salt Lake 
Railroad, a branch line being operated between Caliente on the main 
line and the mining town of Pioche. Its name is not well established, 
and it is sometimes called Lake Vallev or Gevser Vallev. 



44 GROUND WATEK IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 



TOPOGRAPHY. 



Duck Valley is separated from Spring Valley on the north by a low 
divide and from Meadow Valley on the south by the Pioche Range. 
The mountains on the west reach altitudes of 9,000 to 10,000 feet in 
their highest points. They form a continuous wall, except that they 
are partly separated by a pass a few miles southwest of Geyser, at the 
old Patterson mine, the mountains north of the pass being known as 
the Schell Creek Range and those south of it as the Ely Range. The 
latter range is crossed by two passes leading into the valley to the 
west, one a few miles north of Royal and the other about 20 miles 
southwest of Geyser. The Fortification Mountains constitute a range 
of low hills which lie opposite Geyser and separate Duck Valley from 
the south end of Spring Valley. The Cedar Range is somewhat higher 
than the Fortification Mountains and culminate in Wilson Peak, which 
is about 10,000 feet above sea level. The two ranges are separated by 
a pass that leads into the south end of Spring Valley. At the south 
end of Duck Valley is the Pioche Range, on the side of which the town 
of Pioche is located. This range is only a few miles distant from the 
Highland Range, from which it is separated by a narrow valley. 

The northern part of Duck Valley is a typical debris-filled basin 
whose smooth alluvial slopes are almost untouched by erosion. This 
part of the valley was once the site of a fresh-water lake that extended 
from about the latitude of Poney Spring to a point north of Geyser 
post office. This lake was about 20 miles long and 15 miles wide, its 
position being marked by well-preserved shore features. A few small 
ponds in the vicinity of Wambolt's ranch are all that remain of the 
ancient lake. During the humid Pleistocene epoch this lake was 
drained southward into Meadow Valley through a channel about 50 
feet deep and one-fourth mile wide. This channel begins at about the 
latitude of Poney Spring and becomes progressively deeper toward 
the south. East of Pioche Range it is about 100 feet deep in places 
and is cut through bedrock. It enters Meadow Valley at Delmue's 
ranch. The alluvial slopes bordering this channel have been dissected 
by streams entering from the mountains, the branch channels being 
cut down to a level accordant with the main channel. 

GEOLOGY. 

The Ely and Schell Creek ranges are composed of rocks that, accord- 
ing to Spurr, 1 are Cambrian, Devonian, and Carboniferous in age. 
The rocks consist mainly of limestones, quartzites, and shales and 
dip west and southwest. The Cedar Range, which borders the val- 
ley on the east, contains a great amount of lava, volcanic tuff, and 
rhyolite. 

1 Spurr, J. E., Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 
208, pp. 38-44, 1903. 






DUCK VALLEY. 45 

The valley fill is probably largely Tertiary in age and consists of 
sand, clay, and gravel, which has been changed to caliche in some 
places. In most of the valley the Tertiary material is overlain by 
Pleistocene debris. Outcrops of valley fill are found along the ancient 
river channel in the southern part of the valley, where clay, sand, and 
gravel are exposed. 

VEGETATION. 

The native vegetation in Duck Valley consists chiefly of the 
drought-resistant shadscale and blue and white sagebrush and, in the 
shallow-water tracts of rabbit brush and greasewood. On the upper 
part of the alluvial slopes juniper is prevalent, and on the mountains 
pinon, mahogany, and cedar are to be found. 

INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT. 

The principal industry of this immediate region has been mining, 
at least five mining camps having been operated at different times. 
Perhaps the most important were the mines at the town of Pioche, 
which was settled in 1869 and became a city of 10,000 inhabitants 
by 1872. Royal, Bristol, Patterson, and Silver Park have each been 
rich mining towns, but all have been abandoned except Royal. 

Very little agricultural development has taken place in the valley 
proper, stock raising being the principal industry next to mining. 
The Geyser and Wambolt ranches at the north end are the only 
ones in the valley and they are used principally for stock raising. 

Dry farming is in the experimental stage at present and is being 
tried on a small scale. The Valley View Farming Co. has under- 
taken this method of farming on a tract of 6,000 acres lying on the 
opposite side of the valley from Poney Spring. The attempt was 
fairly successful in 1912, the first year of the experiment and the 
only year concerning which reports have been received. Oats, 
wheat, and potatoes were the principal crops raised. If the pre- 
cipitation, which averaged 11.99 inches at Pioche during the years 
1878 to 1882, 1888 to 1890, 1892, and 1906, and 7.31 inches at Geyser 
during the years 1905 to 1907 and 1910 to 1912, proves sufficient to 
produce crops by dry-farming methods, the agricultural output of 
the valley may become important. 

WATER SUPPLIES. 

Streams. — Permanent streams are few and small and are found 
only in the larger canyons. Issuing from the Cedar Mountains on 
the east side of the valley are Craw, Wilson, and Wines creeks, and 
issuing from the Schell Creek Range above the Geyser and Wam- 
bolt ranches are Timber and North creeks, the latter being reported 
to flow about 3 second-feet. These streams are highly important 



46 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

as watering places for stock but are not important for irrigation on 
account of their small flow during the irrigating season. 

Considerable water flows down the ancient river channel during 
floods. The inhabitants of Pioche report that it has carried a stream 
2 to 3 feet deep a number of times since the valley was first settled. 

Springs. — Most of the springs are at the north end of the valley. 
A large number of pool and knoll springs are situated on the Wambolt 
and Geyser ranches at the foot of the slope bordering the Schell 
Creek Range. A spring of peculiar interest occurs on the alluvial 
slope at this place. It is locally known as the Geyser Spring, from 
the fact that it has an intermittent discharge. Its discharge aver- 
ages about 2 second-feet but fluctuates from about 1 second-foot 
to 3 second-feet every three or four hours. It issues from a gravel 
bed at the head of a small arroyo which starts at the foot of a small 
terrace. The cause of the variation in discharge is not known but 
may be accounted for, as in some other intermittent springs, by 
assuming that there is a siphon in the rocks from which the water 
probably heads. If the water were heated it would be reasonable 
to suppose that it was brought about by steam action, but the water 
has a temperature of only 54° F. 

Poney Spring is a typical seepage spring which issues from a sand 
and gravel bed on the alluvial slope bordering the Ely Range and 
has a discharge of only a few gallons per minute. Considerable 
excavating has been done at the spring in attempts to increase the 
flow. The water is used only by range stock and occasionally by 
campers. 

The water supply for the town of Pioche is piped from Floral, 
Connor, and Lime springs, in the Highland Mountains. The quan- 
tity of water obtained from these springs is not known, but it is 
reported that there has never been a shortage in the supply nor any 
sickness which could be traced to the water. 

Wells. — Wells have been sunk into the valley fill in search of water 
for domestic and stock use and have been generally successful. A 
dug well on the Wambolt ranch is 27 feet deep and ordinarily holds 
19 feet of water, but it is reported that in the spring of the year the 
water rises to within 3 feet of the surface. The well on the Valley 
View Farming Co.'s ranch is 134 feet deep and holds 7 feet of water, 
which is lifted by a 4-horsepower gasoline engine operating a suction 
pump. Officers of the company report that 1,800 gallons a day have 
been used for several successive days without materially depleting 
the supply. Altogether at least eight wells have been sunk in the 
old river channel, six of which have been successful and two unsuc- 
cessful. Five of these are locally known by names expressing their 
distance from Pioche. (See PL I.) At the point wjiere tjie road 



DUCK VALLEY. 47 

leaves the old river channel, 21 miles from Pioche, a hole was dug to 
a depth of 90 feet, but failed to obtain water. Six miles farther 
south, or 15 miles from Pioche, a dug well obtained at a depth of 48 
feet a good supply, which is still used for watering cattle pastured in 
the valley. In a depression about a mile northwest of the 15-mile 
well two wells were drilled which supplied the mining camp at Royal 
when it was flourishing but which have not been used for a number 
of years. They are reported to be 150 feet deep, but this report has 
not been verified. The 8-mile well is 28 feet deep and holds 6 feet 
of water. The 6-mile well is about 22 feet deep and the 4-mile well 
only about 18 feet deep. It is reported that in the mines at Pioche 
water was struck at a depth of about 1,100 feet. 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

As shown by analyses 21, 22, and 42 in the table opposite page 
30, the waters are of fairly good quality. Calcium is the most abun- 
dant base and bicarbonate the most abundant acid radicle in the 
samples analyzed. The Wambolt spring water and the municipal 
supply for Pioche are poor for boiler use because of their high content 
of scale-forming ingredients, but they are good for domestic use. 
Their alkali coefficients are high and they are therefore of good 
quality for irrigation. The Geyser Spring water is fair for boiler use, 
for it contains only a moderate amount of scale-forming ingredients, 
and it is good for both domestic use and irrigation. 

IRRIGATION WITH GROUND WATER. 

No attempt has been made in this valley to utilize the ground 
water for irrigation. The water table is near the surface over most 
of the axial part of the valley, and with careful management the 
ground water could be profitably pumped for irrigation in some 
localities. In the southern part of the valley the water could be 
profitably pumped for the irrigation of crops to supply the market 
at the local mines. The hay, grain, fruit, and garden produce is at 
present shipped to Pioche by railroad, most of it being hauled for 
long distances at high cost. It could well be produced at home. 

No experiments have been made to determine the quantity of 
ground water available, but the physical conditions indicate that 
considerable supplies could be developed. In the northern part of 
the valley, at the Geyser and Wambolt ranches, a large quantity of 
water is annually wasted in irrigating meadow land. A part of this 
water might be intercepted in its course through the ground and used 
to irrigate field crops on the alluvial slopes. 



48 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

URSINE VALLEY. 
LOCATION. 

Ursine Valley occupies the trough at the head of Meadow Valley 
Wash. It lies on the east side of the Cedar Range and extends north- 
ward from Delmue's ranch for about 30 miles. It is most easily 
reached from Duck and Meadow valleys, with which it is contiguous. 
Locally it is regarded as consisting of five successive small valleys 
which are known as Dry, Rose, Eagle, Spring, and Camp, but as it is 
a single structural and physiographic unit the name Ursine Valley 
is a convenient designation for it (see PL I), the village of Ursine 
being the principal settlement in the valley. In some of the older 
reports this valley is called Cedar Valley, but this name should not 
be perpetuated in the literature because it lacks individuality and is 
not locally recognized. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The mountains on each side of this valley are high and steep, 
occasionally uniting to form rock canyons. The valley has an 
average width of about one-fourth mile, but in two places it is about 
2 miles wide. The mountains on the west have been described in 
connection with the description of Duck Valley. (See p. 44.) The 
mountains on the east are mostly rolling, and in a few places rise 
8,000 or 9,000 feet above sea level. 

GEOLOGY. 

The geology of the Cedar Range has already been noted. (See 
p. 44.) The mountains on the east side of the valley, according to 
Spurr, 1 are composed chiefly of Tertiary volcanics but contain some 
older limestones of probable Paleozoic age. The valley fill is more 
recent and consists largely of clay and gravel. 

VEGETATION. 

The native vegetation consists largely of willows, cottonwoods, and 
sagebrush. The mountain sides are covered with small juniper, 
pifion, and cedars, and some of the higher mountains bear a luxuriant 
growth of timber. 

INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Nearly all of the inhabitants of the valley are engaged in farming 
and stock raising. The first settlement was made at Ursine in Eagle 
Valley in 1864 by Mormons from Utah, who have resided there con- 
tinuously since that date. Good crops of alfalfa, grain, and fruit are 

1 Spurr, J. E., Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 208, 
pp. 36-37, 1903. 






MEADOW VALLEY. 49 

annually raised, though damaging frosts are not uncommon through- 
out the year. 

Dry farming is being practiced on a small scale and, from present 
indications, may be carried on successfully. A large part of the valley 
is as yet unsettled, and should this method prove successful its agri- 
cultural possibilities will be greatly enlarged. 

WATER SUPPLY. 

Most of the water now used in the valley is derived from the 
natural flow of the creek, which is supplied by innumerable small 
seepage springs. The largest spring issues from limestone at the head 
of Camp Valley on the Hammond ranch, the water having a tem- 
perature of 84° F. The other springs in the valley, although numer- 
ous, are too small to deserve individual mention. Several wells, all 
of them shallow, furnish an ample supply of water for domestic and 
stock use. No well has failed to find water. Most of the valley is 
supplied with stream water for irrigation, and it will probably be 
feasible to irrigate the portion at present uncultivated by means of 
ground water or to cultivate it by dry farming. 

The ground water has not been sufficiently developed to justify 
any definite conclusions concerning it. The geologic conditions and 
the development, so far as it goes, indicate, however, that it comes 
from a thin bed of unconsolidated sediments resting on impervious 
bedrock. Future development will probably prove that it is easily 
available for irrigation. Irrigation with ground water affords greater 
returns at less labor than dry farming and would therefore be of more 
economic value. 

MEADOW VALLEY, 
LOCATION AND EXTENT. 

Meadow Valley is a small basin lying along Meadow Valley Wash 
between Caliente and Delmue's ranch. It is about 25 miles long from 
north to south and extends from the Highland and Meadow Valley 
ranges on the west to the Mormon Range on the east. The Pioche 
branch of the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad, which 
extends throughout its length, renders it easily accessible and sup- 
plies good transportation facilities for marketing crops. (See PL I.) 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

Meadow Valley is bounded on the north by the Pioche Range, on 
the east by the Mormon Range, and on the west by the Highland and 
Meadow Valley ranges; on the south it grades insensibly into the 
Meadow Valley canyon. The valley, which is flat bottomed, has an 
elevation of 4,375 feet at Caliente, from which point it rises gradually 
50014°— wsp 365—15 4 



50 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

to 5,150 feet at Delmue's ranch. The ancient Meadow Valley river 
ran through the valley and left a flat-bottomed channel, which is 
bordered by steep scarps 60 to 100 feet high. The alluvial slopes rise 
from these scarps to the mountains in a series of more or less dissected 
benches. The old river channel, which forms the main portion of the 
arable land, is about 2 miles wide at Panaca but is much narrower at 
Delmue's ranch, and at Caliente it is probably not over 100 yards in 
width. The successive terraces on the alluvial slopes are not unlike 
those found in Las Vegas Valley, except that they are closer together 
and therefore more noticeable. The highest well-marked terrace is 
near Bennetts Spring, which has an elevation of 5,600 feet above sea 
level or about 900 feet above the bottom of the valley. 

GEOLOGY. 

The Highland and Meadow Valley ranges are composed chiefly of 
limestone, shale, and quartzite of Paleozoic age, the Highland Range 
consisting chiefly of Cambrian and the Meadow Valley Range largely 
of Carboniferous strata. The Mormon Range on the east side of the 
valley is composed largely of limestone of Carboniferous age. The 
Pioche Range, which is a simple anticlinal fold, is composed of lime- 
stone, shale, and quartzite of Cambrian and Carboniferous ages. 

The valley fill consists largely of gravel, sand, and variously colored 
clay. Its depth is probably great. There are good exposures of the 
unconsolidated sediments in the valley, but no fossils have been found 
to give a definite clue as to the age. The three terraces on the alluvial 
slopes indicate that there have been at least three epochs of accumu- 
lation, which alternated with three epochs of erosion. The terraces 
and the erosional features in general are very similar to, and probably 
were formed contemporaneous with, those in Las Vegas Valley, 
which are thought to be Pleistocene in age. (See pp. 31-32.) 

INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT. 

The first settlement in Meadow Valley was made in 1863 by the 
Mormons, who still form the majority of the inhabitants. The popu- 
lation in 1910 was 300, most of whom live in the town of Panaca. 
The people are engaged mainly in agricultural pursuits, but pay con- 
siderable attention to stock raising. Until recently crops were raised 
only by irrigation, but wheat, oats, barley, and potatoes are now 
being cultivated by dry farming. 

WATER SUPPLIES. 

The water supply in this valley is derived primarily from springs. 
A large warm spring in the northern part of the valley supplies the 
settlement at Panaca. It is reported to have a discharge of about 



MEADOW VALLEY CANYON. 51 

4 second-feet, which is all that is required for present development. 
From Panaca to the head of the box canyon above Caliente the valley 
fill is well watered by a great number of seepage springs which issue 
from the valley fill. The greater part of the valley is devoted to the 
production of native grasses, on which cattle are fattened for the 
local market, the inhabitants being satisfied with the production of 
enough to meet their own needs. Bennetts Spring, 9 miles west of 
Panaca, is situated near the highest terrace. It issues from the valley 
fill a short distance from the mountains, but the temperature of its 
water, which is 70° F., indicates that it has a deep source, probably 
coming from the limestone. It consists of two small springs about 
100 yards apart, which are used mainly for watering stock. 

Water can doubtless be obtained from wells, especially on the west 
side of the valley, where, on the Hans Olsen farm, a well has been 
dug which furnishes enough water for domestic and stock use. So 
far as could be ascertained this is the only well in the vailey. 

An analysis of the warm spring water collected at its source north 
of Panaca is given in the table opposite page 30 (analysis 23) . Calcium 
is the most abundant base and the bicarbonate the most abundant acid 
radicle. It is moderately low in hardening constituents and total solids. 
It is poor for boiler use but good for domestic use and irrigation. 

In order to attain the greatest productivity the valley proper 
should be drained by an adequate system of ditches, which would 
dispose of the excess water and alkali. The spring water should be 
led through well-constructed ditches along the margins of the valley 
at a sufficient elevation to be advantageously applied to the land. 
If the springs do not yield enough to irrigate the entire valley, addi- 
tional supplies can be developed at moderate cost by pumping from 
the drainage ditches or from wells. Crops can be raised that will be 
more valuable than the wild grass that now grows in much of the 
irrigable part of the valley. 

MEADOW VALLEY CANYON. 
TOPOGRAPHY. 

Meadow Valley Wash leads from Caliente through a narrow rock 
canyon that becomes progressively deeper toward the south. Imme- 
diately south of Caliente the walls of this canyon are only about 
500 feet high, but so steep is the gradient that at Kiernan's ranch, 
several miles to the south, they are at least 2,000 feet high. Accord- 
ing to Spurr, 1 the canyon was u cut in a broad north-south plateau 
valley separating the Meadow Valley Kange on the west from the 
Mormon Eange on the east." The plateau, he thought, was formed 

iSpurr, J. E., Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 
208, pp. 139-140, 1903. 



52 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

long before the canyon, probably in Tertiary time. A few miles below 
Kiernan's ranch the canyon broadens somewhat and forms a debris- 
filled basin about 1 mile wide and about 6 miles long, but at Carp a 
narrow but shallower canyon begins and grows progressively deeper 
to the lower Cane Spring, below which it again widens and becomes 
shallower until at the junction with Muddy River it is 2 miles wide. 
(See PL I.) 

GEOLOGY. 

The rocks forming the walls at the north end of the canyon con- 
sist largely of igneous material, such as rhyolite, rhyolitic sandstone^ 
and dacite. This series makes up the entire wall at Kiernan's ranch, 
where the canyon is probably not less than 2,000 feet deep. At 
Mabey's ranch, in the intermountain valley, the canyon walls are 
formed by stratified volcanic sandstone or tuff. Between Carp and 
Rox the walls are made up of inclined Paleozoic limestones, which 
are overlain by unconsolidated material. (See PL IV, A.) South 
of Lower "Cane Spring the valley is cut in the red sandy clays which 
are described in connection with Muddy and Virgin valleys. 

WATER SUPPLY. 

The Meadow Valley canyon is normally dry for long stretches, 
and during the dry part of the year no surface water reaches Muddy 
River. Even during the driest part of the year, however, water 
usually runs in some parts of the canyon, and between Caliente and 
Kiernan's ranch it flows throughout the year. Occasionally heavy 
floods sweep down the valley, carrying considerable water to Colo- 
rado River. On Carson's, Kiernan's, and Bradshaw's ranches, in 
the upper part of the valley, small fields are irrigated with surface 
water derived from the wash. 

At Caliente, Carp, and Rox wells have been sunk in the bottom 
of Meadow Valley Wash by the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake 
Railroad Co. to obtain water for locomotives. The well at Caliente 
is 117 feet deep, and the depth to water varies from 1 to 18 feet 
below the surface. The water is raised by an air lift, which supplies 
300 gallons a minute. The well at Carp is 42 feet deep and 19 feet 
in diameter, and the water stands 34 feet below the surface. The 
capacity of the well is reported by the railroad company to be 100 
gallons a minute. The well at Rox is 14 feet deep and 7 J feet square, 
and the water stands practically at the surface. The capacity of 
this well is reported to be 500 gallons a minute. Each of the rail- 
road wells is located in the bottom of Meadow Valley Wash and pene- 
trates only unconsolidated material. 

The log of the Caliente well is as follows : 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVE-i 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 365 PLATE IV 




A. UNCONFORMITY BETWEEN PALEOZOIC AND TERTIARY STRATA IN MEADOW VALLEY CANYON, 

NEAR ROX, NEV. 




B. ENTRANCE TO STREAM CHANNEL THROUGH BASALTIC LAVA ABOUT 24 MILES NORTH OF 

HIKO, NEV. 



Carved by ancient White River. 



WHITE EIVEE DRAINAGE BASIN. 53 

Log of railroad well at Caliente. 



Soil, sandy 

Quicksand, water bearing . 

Clay, brown 

Gravel, water bearing 

Bedrock. 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Feet. 


Feet. 


5 


5 


30 


35 


71 


106 


11 


117 



In the little intermoimtain valley, only about 1 mile wide and 6 
miles long, between Kiernan's ranch and Carp station, three wells 
have been sunk, in which the water was found near enough to the 
surface to be profitably pumped for irrigation. These wells range 
from 20 to 30 feet in depth, and the depth to water ranges from 14 
to 25 feet, depending on the altitude of the well mouth above the 
stream channel. Water normally flows in the canyon above this 
valley, but sinks into the loose gravel which underlies the valley 
and flows therein at depths from which it can be profitably pumped. 



WHITE RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN. 

LOCATION AND EXTENT. 



The White River drainage basin extends from about the latitude 
of Ely to the head of Muddy Valley, which is a continuation of the 
same drainage basin. It includes the White River, Pahranagat, and 
Coyote Spring valleys and some intermediate areas to which no 
names have been applied. The total length of the basin as here 
denned is about 175 miles, and its total area about 3,000 square miles, 
including all of the mountain and valley tracts that drain into it. 
(See PL I.) 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The mountains on the east side of the White River basin form a 
practically continuous chain. Nevertheless, different parts of them 
have become known by local names — the Egan on the north, the 
Pahroc in the center, and the Hiko on the south — names that have 
become firmly fixed in the minds of the inhabitants. The mountains 
on the west side of the basin are not continuous. The west boundary 
of the White River valley proper is formed by the White Pine and 
Grant ranges, which are continuous with the Quinn Canyon Range. 
South of the " sinks" of White River the valley swings eastward 
around the north end of the Seaman Range. West of Hiko and 
Alamo the west boundary is formed by the Pahranagat Range; south 
of Maynard Lake it is formed by the Arrow Canyon Range; and still 
farther south it is formed by the Las Vegas Range. 



54 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

After the formation of this structural trough the agents of erosion 
began carrying material from the mountains and depositing it in the 
valley. This process continued for a long time and the valley was 
filled to a higher level than at present. During the humid Pleistocene 
epoch, when the region received more abundant rainfall than at 
present, a stream of considerable magnitude carved a channel through 
the valley from Preston to the head of Muddy Valley. In a few places 
it cut entirely through the sediments and deeply incised the bedrock. 
A typical example of this erosion is exhibited a short distance south 
of White Rock Spring, where the stream cut the lava and tuff to a 
depth of 250 feet. (See PI. IV, B.) About 10 miles north of Hiko, 
between Fossil Peak and the Hiko Range, this stream again cut into 
the lava and limestone. Seven miles south of Alamo it cut a channel 
75 feet deep in solid basaltic lava, and at Maynard Lake it cut 
another, also in lava, which is estimated to be about 500 feet deep. 
Thirteen miles south of Coyote Spring it cut into solid limestone to a 
depth of 100 feet, and about 1J miles above Baldwin's ranch in 
Muddy Valley it cut the Arrow Canyon, a very steep-sided gash 
about 5 miles long and 500 feet deep, so narrow in places that a 
wagon and team can not be driven between its walls. 

Throughout the length of the valley the channel is cut into the 
unconsolidated sediments to a depth ranging from a few feet to 50 
feet or more and an average width of about one-fourth mile. In the 
vicinity of Preston it is only a few feet deep, and from Preston south- 
ward to Emigrant Springs it is about a mile wide and covered with 
a luxuriant growth of native grasses. It gradually becomes deeper 
toward the south. In Pahranagat Valley for 40 miles it is about 50 
feet deep and one-fourth mile wide. (See PL V.) In Coyote Spring 
Valley it is 50 to 100 feet deep and about one-fourth mile wide. The 
alluvial slopes bordering this old river channel have been greatly 
dissected by the arroyos which head in the mountains and extend 
across the slopes. Since the change in climatic conditions and the 
consequent drying up of the ancient river the debris washed in from 
the mountains has partly silted up the old channel in many places, 
as, for example, about a mile north of Hiko, where the canyon from 
the Hiko Range discharges into the valley. 

Pahroc Valley is a small debris-filled, nearly circular intermoun- 
tain basin lying on the east side of the Hiko Range and separated 
from Bristol Valley farther east by a divide formed partly of rock 
and partly of debris. It slopes gently toward the west and drains 
through a canyon in the Hiko Range into the Pahranagat Valley, 
forming a part of the White River drainage basin. 



WHITE EIVEK DUAIISAUE BASIN. 55 



GEOLOGY. 



The rocks exposed in the mountains of this basin consist mainly of 
sedimentary strata of Paleozoic age but include also considerable 
igneous material, such as lava and volcanic tuff. 

The unconsolidated sediments consist of clay, sand, and gravel. 
They lie beneath the valleys, where they extend to unknown depths. 
Beds of fine powdery clay and rounded pebbles are exposed in cliffs 
50 feet high along the old river channel and can also be seen in a 
few shallow wells. 

The exposed parts of the unconsolidated sediments contain no fos- 
sils to give a clue to their age, but they are believed to be Pleisto- 
cene. The physiographic features, which have doubtless been formed 
by erosion, were probably produced in Pleistocene time. Lee 1 points 
out that the erosion of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado was prob- 
ably accomplished in Pleistocene time during three successive 
epochs of erosion. These three epochs are represented in Meadow 
Valley and there is some inconclusive evidence that two of them are 
represented in the White River basin. 



WATER SUPPLY. 



Streams. — The drainage in this basin is at present limited to the 
run-off from the mountains. The old river channel is dry through- 
out the year from the sinks to Hiko Spring, a distance of 50 miles, 
and from Maynard Lake to Muddy Springs, a distance of about 35 
miles, except during times of flood, when considerable water comes 
down the channel. There have been five such floods in the last 28 
years at Hiko, the last being in January, 1910, when the big flood 
occurred in Meadow Valley. Most of the water that leaves the 
mountains soon sinks into the loose gravel and soil on the upper 
parts of the alluvial slopes, and only in exceptional freshets does 
water reach the central part of the basin. 

Springs. — The water supplies in the White River valley are 
derived from springs. Arnoldson, Nicholas, and Preston springs 
are at Preston and furnish the irrigation and domestic supply for 
that settlement. They issue from the valley fill and in October, 
1910, had a discharge of 12.63 second-feet. 2 The discharges of the 
separate springs were as follows: Arnoldson, 3.14 second-feet; Nich- 
olas, 2.28 second-feet, and Preston 6.21 second-feet. The Lund 
Spring, at Lund, which had a discharge of 5.36 second-feet, 2 is the 
only supply for the settlement of Lund. A group known as Emi- 
grant Springs supplies the water used on the Rearden ranch. The 

1 Lee, W. T., Geologic reconnaissance of a part of western Arizona: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 352, pp. 
62-67, 1908. 

2 Kearney, W. M., Bien. Rept. State Engineer Nevada, p. 249, 1913. 



56 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

discharge of these springs was not ascertained accurately, but it is 
estimated to be 3 second-feet. The water is used for irrigating 
about 200 acres, most of which is meadow land. At Sunnyside six 
springs, known as the Butterfield and Flag springs, are used to 
irrigate about 300 acres. At the east base of the limestone butte a 
number of springs issue from the rocks and are used on the Hot 
Creek ranch. On the west side of the valley the Mormon Springs, 
owned by James Rearden, supply water for pasture land. Aside 
from these a great number of small seepage springs issue from the 
valley fill around the border of the meadow land. 

There is no water in this basin between Hot Creek ranch and 
White Rock Spring except a few ponds, which are occasionally filled 
by rains. White Rock Spring issues from the volcanic tuff on the 
side of a canyon heading in the Seaman Range. Three springs in 
Pahranagat Valley, issuing from limestone, supply water for domes- 
tic use and for irrigation. Hiko Spring, at the foot of the Hiko 
Range, has a discharge of about 9 second-feet. Crystal Spring, 4 
miles south of Hiko, flows about 7 second-feet. Ash Springs, 5 
miles south of Crystal Spring, issue at the foot of the Hiko Range 
and have a discharge of about 20 second-feet. The water from 
these springs flows to Pahranagat Lake, about 20 miles to the south- 
east, during the winter, but in summer it is used for irrigation. After 
a flood, or when Pahranagat Lake has been filled, the water continues 
southeast and fills Maynard Lake. The next water to the south is 
at Coyote Spring, in Coyote Spring valley. Pahroc Spring, a small 
seepage spring, is the only watering place in the Pahroc Valley. It 
issues from the volcanic tuft and has a discharge of about 2 gallons 
a minute. 

Wells. — Some wells, most of which obtained water at shallow 
depth, have been sunk in this basin. Shallow wells were dug at 
the Lund settlement, but the water was so poor in quality that they 
have all been abandoned. W. J. Gregory dug a well in sec. 14, T. 
10 N., R. 62 E., at the edge of the grass meadows, obtaining water 
at 12 feet. No other wells are known to have been dug in the White 
River Valley above the "sink." In Pahranagat Valley, a few miles 
south of White Rock Spring, it is reported that a well 50 feet deep 
obtained no water. In a well 1.2 miles north of Hiko the water 
stands 36 feet below the surface, and in Hiko water was found on 
irrigated land at 5 feet. The next well to the south is at Roder's 
ranch, where the water stands 12 \ feet below the surface. A well 
on the upper Gardner ranch, on irrigated land, got water at about 
10 feet. A well on the lower Gardner ranch obtained water at 11 
feet. A well 40 feet deep in the lower part of Coyote Spring valley 
got no water. 



WHITE RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN. 57 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

The spring waters in the White River basin, as shown by analyses 
24 to 30, in the table opposite page 30, contain only a moderate 
amount of dissolved solids. Calcium is the predominating base and 
bicarbonate the. predominating acid radicle. The waters are invari- 
ably poor for boiler use but good for domestic use and irrigation. 
Analyses of water from a drainage ditch at Alamo and from Pah- 
ranagat Lake show a great increase in mineral content over the 
Ash Spring water, from which both are derived, the increase being 
no doubt due to the fact that the water in passing over the fields 
leaches some salts from the soil. The mineral content of the lake 
water is also greatly concentrated by evaporation and probably 
fluctuates with the level of the lake. In winter, when the water is 
not used for irrigation, the water rises about 6 feet above the level 
it reaches in the fall. The water from Pahranagat Lake is bad for 
every use. 

GROUND- WATER PROSPECTS. 

The conditions in the White River valley above the "sink" of 
White- River are favorable for obtaining ground-water supplies. 
The mountains are high and are doubtless frequently visited by heavy 
rains. Much of the water thus received probably sinks into the 
gravelly upper portions of the alluvial slopes and gradually seeps 
underground to the central part of the valley, where it is returned to 
the surface through springs and minute pores in the ground. Part of 
this water, which is annually wasted by evaporation, could probably 
be intercepted during its course through the ground and returned 
to the surface, where it would produce useful crops. It is known that 
the water table lies near the surface in the central part of the valley, 
and it is probable that the lower part of the alluvial slopes are also 
underlain by shallow water. 

In Pahranagat Valley, most of the central part of which is irrigated 
with spring water, no difficulty has been experienced in obtaining 
ground water. A large part of the land is covered with water, so that 
the problem there is a question of drainage rather than of irrigation. 
A well-constructed drainage canal to drain the swamp land would 
permit an increase in the agricultural output of the valley. In order 
to attain the greatest productivity developments should be made simi- 
lar to those recommended for Meadow Valley. The valley proper 
should be drained by an adequate system of ditches which would 
dispose of the excess water and alkali. The spring water should be 
led through well-constructed ditches along the margins of the valley 
at a sufficient elevation to be advantageously applied to the land. If 
the springs do not yield enough to irrigate the entire valley, additional 
supplies can be developed at moderate cost by pumping from the 



58 GKOUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA, 

drainage ditches or from wells. Crops can be raised that will be 
more valuable than the wild grass that now grows in much of the 
irrigable part of the valley. 

No wells are known to have been sunk in Pahroc Valley, and the 
conditions are such that it seems unlikely that any large supply can 
be obtained from underground sources. The altitude of the valley 
is high, and any water that might collect in the unconsolidated sedi- 
ments would probably find an outlet into Pahranagat Valley, which 
lies much lower. 

Coyote Spring Valley has only one watering place — the spring after 
which it is named. The geologic conditions indicate that at least 
small amounts of ground water occur in the valley. The Sheep 
Range on the west side of the valley is high and appears to be well 
timbered, indicating that it receives considerable rainfall. Some 
water, therefore, should be found beneath the valley, and it is prob- 
able that wells would reveal its presence. 

MUDDY AND VIRGIN VALLEYS. 

LOCATION. 

Muddy Valley is a narrow strip of land extending along Muddy 
River from the springs in T. 14 S., R. 65 E., to Virgin River. About 
6 miles below Moapa a rock canyon separates the Upper Muddy 
Valley on the north from the Lower Muddy Valley on the south. 
Virgin Valley, as here discussed, includes the narrow strip of land 
along Virgin River frbm the settlement of Mesquite to Colorado 
River. (See PL I.) 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

Muddy Valley is a narrow flood plain formed by the ancient 
White River. In the Upper Muddy Valley the flood plain is in 
most places not over a quarter of a mile wide and is bordered by a 
plateau or mesa. It widens somewhat below Moapa, where Meadow 
Valley Wash enters, but it narrows again as it approaches the rock 
canyon. The Lower Muddy Valley is on the average about 2 miles 
wide. The mesa bordering it stands several hundred feet above 
the flood plain and forms a conspicuous vermilion-colored cliff on 
each side. 

GEOLOGY. 

The rocks underlying the plateau and forming the walls of the 
northern part of the valley are probably of Tertiary age. Spurr x 
places them in the Pliocene series, and they have also been mapped 
as such by the Wheeler Survey. They consist mainly of clay, sand, 

1 Spurr, J. E., Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel: TJ. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 
208, pp. 136-138, 1903. 



MUDDY ASD VIRGIN VALLEYS. 59 

and conglomerate, which appear to extend to considerable depth 
below the surface. At the Kaolin mine, about 4 miles southwest of 
Overton, the following section was taken: 

Section at the Kaolin mine, 4 miles southwest of Overton. 

Horizontally bedded series: 

Red clay and sand, unknown thickness. Feet. 

Brown conglomerate 50 

Unconformity. 
Series dipping 32^° E.: 

White limestone 100 

Red sandstone 150 

Gray conglomerate 125 

Red sandstone, unknown thickness. 

In the southern part of the valley, notably below St. Thomas, the 
rocks underlying the plateau consist of white clay, basaltic lava, 
and gypsum. These rocks lie unconformably below the red sand 
and clay forming the plateau farther north. They dip steeply to 
the west and apparently represent an older period of deposition. 

VEGETATION. 

Native vegetation in Muddy Valley consists of sagebrush, shad- 
scale, greasewood, mesquite, quail brush, arrow weed, willow, cotton- 
wood, and grasses. When the valley was settled in 1858 the Lower 
Muddy Valley was practically covered by wild grass and was at that 
time a grazing ground for the Indian herds. The drought-resistant 
shadscale and creosote and some bunch grass are the principal 
species found on the bench land bordering the valley. The vegeta- 
tion in Virgin Valley is not essentially different from that in Muddy 
Valley. 

RAINFALL AND TEMPERATURE. 

Rainfall data have been collected in the Lower Muddy Valley for 
13 years. During the six years for which the records are complete 
the annual precipitation ranged from 3.07 inches to 8.17 inches, 
the average being 5.98 inches. The average monthly precipitation 
ranged from 0.11 inch in June to 0.98 inch in January. The greatest 
monthly precipitation was in January, 1897, when 2.36 inches were 
recorded. The normal rainfall is not sufficient to be of material benefit 
to agricultural crops. The following table gives the data as recorded 
by the United States Weather Bureau: 



60 



GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

Monthly 'precipitation, in inches, at Logan, Nev. a 
[Tr. indicates a precipitation of 0.01 inch or less.] 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


An- 
nual. 


1895 








Tr. 


'"."06" 


Tr. 

Tr. 
1.00 


Tr. 
Tr. 
Tr. 


Tr. 
0.58 

Tr. 


Tr. 

.16 
1.41 

Tr. 

.04 

.26 

.11 

'".'44" 


Tr. 

0.48 
.55 


.22 
.58 
.76 
.13 
.90 

1.86 
Tr. 






Tr. 

Tr. 


Tr. 
0.92 
1.55 


0.43 



.30 




1896 


0.60 
2.27 
1.00 


Tr. 
1.91 
Tr. 


0.60 
1.24 
Tr. 




1897 




1898 








1902 


Tr. 
Tr. 
Tr. 
Tr. 
.29 
Tr. 
Tr. 

.06 




.07 



Tr. 


Tr. 

.17 

.94 


6 

.79 
.34 
.38 
1.18 
.58 

'i.*63" 





1.30 



1.80 
.44 


.52 
.80 
.60 


1.33 


.44 




1903 


.11 


.24 


.38 


.05 




1906 


.58 


Tr. 
1.04 

.94 


.10 


1.13 
Tr. 

.58 
1.80 
.54 
.04 
Tr. 




1907 


2.36 

1.90 

.35 

.56 

.70 




.95 

1.45 

1.52 

.10 

.63 


1.40 
.70 
.60 
.23 
.90 

1.88 


.42 
.03 
.16 
.07 
.16 
.63 


7.44 


1908 


7.51 


1909 


8.17 


1910 


&3.07 


1911 


6 5.03 


1912 


&4.65 






Average 


.98 


.76 


.79 


.15 


.12 


.11 


.27 


.14 


.44 


.66 


.49 


.53 


5.98 



a Observations from 1905 to 1908 were made at St. Thomas and from 1902 to 1903 at Rioville. 
stations are near Logan. 
b The record covers only 11 months of the year. 



Both 



Both Muddy and Virgin valleys have a subtropical climate. The 
summers are long and hot, the growing season normally covering 
from 9 to 10 months, and the winters are short and mild. During 
the years 1895 to 1898, 1902 and 1903, and 1906 to 1909 the maxi- 
mum temperature recorded was 117°, the minimum 10°, and the mean 
64.9°. The range between the highest and lowest temperatures 
recorded is 107°, but the monthly range between maximum and min- 
imum is about 70°. The following table gives the temperature data 
as recorded by the United States Weather Bureau: 

Temperature (°F.) at Logan, Nev. 





Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


An- 
nual. 


Maximum 


75 
11 
43 

74 


86 
10 

49.7 
76 


90 
19 

54.2 
71 


103 
25 
64.3 

78 


110 
29 
71.7 

81 


117 
34 

82 
83 


116 
49 
87.7 
67 


117 
50 
86.6 
67 


114 
34 
77.3 

80 


100 
29 
66 
71 


85 
19 

52.6 
66 


76 
10 

44.2 
66 


117 




10 


Mean 


64.9 


Range — 


107 



INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. 



The Lower Muddy Valley was first settled in 1858 by Mormons 
from Utah. They resided there contentedly until 1865, when they 
learned that they were within the State of Nevada and were asked 
to pay taxes for a portion of the period during which they had 
resided within the State. In consequence they returned to Utah, 
and the valley was not again settled until 18 years later, when people 
from Utah came into it. In 1904 the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt 
Lake Railroad was built through this part of Nevada, crossing 
Muddy Valley at Moapa, and in 1912 a branch was built from Moapa 
to St. Thomas. Previous to the construction of this road the valley 



MUDDY AND VIRGIN VALLEYS. 



61 



was inaccessible except by wagon or stage over very rough moun- 
tainous roads. 

The Upper Muddy Valley contains the Moapa Indian Reservation 
of about 1,000 acres and three other ranches. Until recently prac- 
tically the only development in the Virgin Valley was at Bunkerville 
and Mesquite, which were settled about 1880. 

WATER SUPPLY. 

Surface water. — The surface-water supply of Muddy Valley is ob- 
tained from Muddy River. This stream has its source at the head of 
the upper Muddy Valley in a number of springs that issue from lime- 
stone crevices, a short distance from the mountains, in T. 14 S., R. 
65 E., just below the Baldwin ranch. The water has a temperature 
of about 90°. 

Discharge measurements were made by the United States Geo- 
logical Survey 1 from 1904 to 1906, and also in 1910. From 1904 to 
1906 the gaging station was just below the railroad crossing on 
Muddy River, but in 1910 it was moved to a point below the nar- 
rows. The measurements from 1904 to 1906 are too fragmentary 
to be of much value to the irrigator, but the records from April 22 
to October 31, 1910, are complete. They are given in the following 
table: 



Daily discharge, in second-feet, of Muddy River near Moapa, Nev.,for 1910. 



Day. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


1 




100 
98 
97 
93 
97 
101 
101 
101 
101 
101 
100 
98 
96 
96 
97 
97 
97 
97 
95 
93 
93 
92 
91 
88 
85 
83 
81 
84 
87 
89 
91 


92 
88 
83 
82 
81 
81 
80 
70 
65 
57 
58 
60 
62 
65 
67 
66 
64 
62 
60 
58 
58 
56 
55 
53 
52 
54 
56 
59 
60 
60 


64 
68 
67 
65 
64 
60 
57 
54 
55 
55 
56 
59 
60 
61 
61 
62 
59 
56 
60 
60 
59 
59 
59 
60 
60 
59 
57 
55 
54 
54 
53 


52 
57 
62 
66 
56 
52 
49 
46 
46 
63 
90 
118 
67 
60 
49 
49 
48 
48 
50 
52 
53 
53 
54 
50 
48 
43 
38 
33 
33 
34 
34 


• 35 
35 
35 
35 
37 
37 
37 
39 
39 
39 
39 
39 
40 
40 
41 
42 
43 
42 
41 
40 
40 
39 
37 
35 
34 
34 
34 
35 
37 
37 


37 


2 

3 




37 
37 


4 




37 


5 




37 


6 




37 


7 




37 


8 




37 


9 




37 


10 




37 


11 




37 


12 




37 


13 




37 


14 




38 


15 




39 


16 




40 


17 




11 


18 




41 


19 




42 


20 




43 


21 




42 


22 


122 
112 
105 
98 
99 
100 
102 
103 
102 


42 


23 


42 


24 


42 


25 


41 


26 


41 


27... 


41 


28 


41 


29 


41 


30 


40 


31 


39 









iLeighton, M. O., Surface water supply of the Colorado River 
Water-Supply Paper 289, pp. 197-198, 1912. 



basin, 1910: U. S. Geol. Survey 



62 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

The average discharge during the period of X90 days is 61.6 second- 
feet. The average discharge in second-feet by months is: May, 94.2; 
June, 65.3; July, 59.1; August, 53.3; September, 37.9; and October, 
39.3. The total run-off for the period was 23^00 acre-feet. The total 
acreage irrigated is about 3,500 acres, or one acre for about 6.6 acre- 
feet of stream flow during this period. 

Meadow Valley Wash, which is tributary to Muddy River, 
seldom contains a stream throughout its course. At times, however, 
due to heavy rains, cloud-bursts, or the rapid melting of snow in the 
drainage basin, it discharges a large volume of water into Muddy 
River. Perhaps the largest flood in this wash in recent times was 
in January, 1910, when about 85 miles of the San Pedro, Los Angeles & 
Salt Lake Railroad track was destroyed between Rox and Acoma.* 
A flood of this character inundates farm land in the Lower Muddy 
Valley and destroys the irrigation ditches, but such damage could 
in a large measure be prevented by the construction of a large drain- 
age ditch in the valley. The intermittent floods have filled the old 
channel of the river, compelling the excess water to spread over the 
valley floor. 

Virgin River rises in southern Utah and flows southwestward, 
entering Nevada at the town of Mesquite. In its course through 
Nevada it flows over a bed of sand ranging in width from about a 
hundred yards to about half a mile. As in all similar streams, the 
water is not sufficient to cover the river bed, and consequently it 
meanders from side to side, cutting away in one place and depositing 
in another. Of late years it has been cutting into the farm lands of 
Bunkerville and Mesquite and threatening to destroy them. 

A few miles above Mesquite the stream has cut a rock canyon 
through the mountains. It has been suggested that a dam might be 
thrown across the river at this point to store water which could be 
used to irrigate the mesa land on either side of the river. The erection 
of such a dam would probably not present any serious engineering 
difficulties, but preliminary surveys seem to indicate that the cost 
would be great as compared with the benefits that would be derived 
from it. 

The domestic and irrigation supplies for the Bunkerville and 
Mesquite settlements are derived from Virgin River. Bunkerville has 
a population of 350 and has about 600 acres under cultivation, and 
Mesquite has a population of 300 and has 900 acres under cultiva- 
tion. In addition to the supplies for these towns, which are con- 
ducted through gravity ditches, it is planned to take water from 
Virgin River for the irrigation of four farms between Bunkerville and 
Colorado River. S. W. Darling, in sees. 12 and 13, T. 16 S., R. 68 E., 
has two pumping plants. The one in sec. 12 has a 12-horsepower 



MUDDY AND VIRGIN VALLEYS. 63 

gasoline engine and a No. 8 horizontal-shaft centrifugal pump. The 
pump has a 10-inch suction pipe. 

Ground water. — No extensive attempt has been made to obtain 
ground water in the Muddy and Virgin valleys. Three shallow wells 
in the vicinity of Logan, one well east of Overton on the Morrison 
farm, one well north of St. Thomas on the Whit more farm, and one 
deep well belonging to the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake 
Railroad at St. Thomas constitute the ground- water development 
in the Muddy Valley. The only well in the Virgin Valley is at Bunker- 
ville. The wells at Logan are driven, and the depth to water in them 
could not be ascertained. In the Morrison well, in the NE. J NE. J 
sec. 19, T. 16 S., R. 68 E., the water stands 11 feet below the sur- 
face. In the Whitmore well, in sec. 33, T. 16 S., R. 68 E., the 
water stands 20.4 feet below the surface. In the railroad well at St. 
Thomas, which affords the best index of the ground-water conditions 
in the valley, the first water was struck at 30 feet. This water was 
cased out and drilling continued to a depth of 805 feet. The water 
stands 284 feet below the surface and is reported to bear continuous 
pumping at a rate of 120 gallons a minute. The well at Bunkerville, 
which is reported to be 60 feet deep, yields water that is too brackish 
to be palatable. 

Ground water in Muddy Valley lies near enough to the surface to 
be profitably pumped for irrigation, but it is found in quicksand, 
which does not give up its supply readily enough to allow continuous 
pumping. The Morrison brothers attempted to irrigate with ground 
water in 1912, but the attempt was unsuccessful. In Mesilla Valley, 
in New Mexico, satisfactory irrigation supplies have been developed 
in wells ending in fine sand by sinking perforated iron casings to the 
desired depth, pumping out the sand in as large quantities as possi- 
ble, and filling the resulting cavities, outside of the casing, with fine 
gravel. By this process gravel screens were developed around the 
well casings and water was obtained much more freely than from 
the fine sand. Some such method would be worthy of trial in the 
Muddy Valley. 

QUALITY OP WATER. 

The quality of the water in Muddy Valley is shown by analyses 
18, 19, 20, and 41 in the table opposite page 30. The water in Muddy 
River, which forms the principal supply for the valley, contains 835 
parts per million of dissolved solids, sodium being the most abundant 
base and the sulphate the most abundant acid radicle. This water 
is poor for boiler use on account of its high content of scaling ingre- 
dients, and it is only fair for irrigation, its alkali coefficient being 16. 
Chemically it is only fair for domestic use, because of its content of 
sulphate, and hygienically it is questionable. 



64 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

The analysis of the water from the well on the Bryant Whitmore 
farm, north of St. Thomas (No. 41, in table opposite p. 30), gives a 
valuable index to the quality of the ground water in the valley. This 
water contains 3,053 parts per million of dissolved solids, sodium 
being the most abundant base and sulphate the most abundant acid 
radicle. It is bad for boiler use, containing 1,280 parts per million 
of scale-forming ingredients, 1,300 parts of foaming ingredients, and 
being corrosive. It is poor for domestic use on account of its high 
mineral content and is poor for irrigation. 

The analysis of the water from the railroad well at St. Thomas 
probably indicates the quality of the deep-seated water beneath the 
valley. It contains 3,815 parts per million of dissolved solids and 
may be classed as a sodium sulphate water. It is very bad for boiler 
use because of its content of scale-forming and foaming ingredients 
and its corrosive action. It is bad for domestic use on account of 
its high mineral content, and it is poor for irrigation. 

No analysis of Virgin River water was made. The quality of this 
water, however, is indicated to some extent by the fact that it has 
been used for domestic purposes for many years by the inhabitants 
of Bunkerville and Mesquite without ill effect. It has also been 
used for irrigation at these places since the first settlement in 1880 
without serious injury to the land or crops. 

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT. 

The future development of Muddy Valley depends to a very large 
extent on the procuring of additional water for irrigation. Although 
the entire supply from Muddy River is appropriated, less than one- 
third the total arable land is under cultivation. With more judicious 
use the water now available might serve a larger acreage, but it can 
not be hoped that it would irrigate all the arable land in the valley. 
A dam constructed in the narrows would store water for the irriga- 
tion of the lower valley, but as there are only about 6,000 acres to 
be served the cost makes such a dam hardly feasible. The low 
alkali coefficient of the ground water probably precludes its use for 
irrigation. Possibly it could be used by applying the surface waters, 
when abundant, to wash out of the soil the alkali deposited by the 
ground water. 

The present method of distributing the water does not give good 
results. A large drainage ditch is needed throughout the valley 
to prevent destructive floods. The canals should be placed higher 
on the sides of the valley and should be better constructed in order 
to prevent seepage and frequent breaks. The seepage collected in 
the main drainage ditch could be led or pumped upon land lower 
down the valley and used a second time for irrigation. 



GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 65 

GREAT BASIN DRAINAGE. 
BRISTOL AND DELAMAR VALLEYS. 

LOCATION AND EXTENT. 

Between the Meadow Valley and White River drainage systems, 
which head far north but discharge into Virgin River and thus form 
a part of the Colorado River system, lies a rock trough about 65 
miles long and 8 miles in average width, which has no drainage 
outlet and therefore constitutes a long tongue of the Great Basin 
province. This trough is bordered on the east by the Ely, Highland, 
and Meadow Valley ranges and on the west by the Pahroc and Hiko 
ranges. About 8 miles north of Delamar this trough is crossed by a 
low alluvial divide that separates it into two independent drainage 
basins. On the old maps of Nevada this trough is called Desert 
Valley, but as this name is frequently applied to other valleys in 
this region and is not distinctive it is desirable to substitute for it 
names of local significance. In this report the name Bristol Valley 
is applied to the northern basin and Delamar Valley to the southern. 
The names are suggested by the two old mining camps in the re- 
spective basins, and both have the sanction of considerable local 
usage. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

There is a very striking difference between the topographic features 
exhibited in these valleys and those drained by Colorado River. In 
Bristol and Delamar valleys the alluvial slopes are smooth and grade 
down into the central flat almost imperceptibly. The few streams 
that issue from the mountain canyons in times of flood carve chan- 
nels into the upper part of the alluvial slopes but gradually play out 
toward the central flat. In the valleys drained by Colorado River 
and its tributaries, on the other hand, the alluvial slopes are greatly 
dissected, the streams that issue from the mountain canyons in times 
of flood carve channels which usually become deeper toward the 
central part of the valley, and the central flats are usually more or 
less dissected and much narrower than those in the inclosed basins. 

The lowest parts of Bristol and Delamar valleys are occupied by 
large playas or mud flats, and there is evidence that both were once 
the beds of lakes. These lakes were small in comparison with some 
of the other Pleistocene lakes in the Great Basin, such as Lake Bonne- 
ville and Lake Lahontan, but contained considerable water. 

Only the southern part of the ancient lake bed in Bristol Valley was 
seen, but it probably covered an area of about 50 square miles, includ- 
ing the present dry lake and adjoining area. When at its maximum 
height it was about 75 feet deep and had a shore line perhaps 40 miles 
50014°— wsp 365—15 5 



66 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

in length. It stood at high-water mark long enough to carve a terrace 
about 8 feet high on the lower part of the alluvial slopes. 

Delamar Lake was about 50 feet deep and covered an area of about 
55 square miles. Its shore line was about 35 miles long and it covered 
all of the present dry lake and contiguous surrounding area. It 
carved only slight shore features, which might be overlooked by one 
unaccustomed to such phenomena. The best exposure of the shore 
features is on the small butte about 12 miles southwest of Delamar, 
where the waves of the ancient lake cut a notch into the solid lime- 
stone. 

RAINFALL AND VEGETATION. 

No observations have been made of the precipitation in these 
valleys, but the scant vegetation shows that it is slight. In Bristol 
Valley on the upper parts of the alluvial slopes, where the rainfall is 
no doubt greater than in the low part of the valley and the run-off from 
the mountains may have -an influence on the soil moisture, the com- 
mon sage predominates, but in the lower part of the alluvial slopes 
and on the central flat shadscale and white sage form much the greater 
proportion of the vegetation. In Delamar Valley the alluvial slopes 
are practically covered with a species of Spanish bayonet and yucca 
locally called Joshua trees, and the central flat by a very scant growth 
of white sage, shadscale, and bunch grass. The playas or so-called 
"dry lakes" in both valleys are covered with water for a short time 
after the heavy rains and are practically destitute of vegetation. 

WATER SUPPLY. 

Wells and springs. — Bristol and Delamar valleys are entirely desti- 
tute of irrigation supplies and contain only a few watering places for 
man or beast. One well and three springs constitute the only perma- 
nent supplies in these valleys. 

Bristol well formerly furnished the water supply for a smelter which 
was located there on account of the water. It is reported that several 
wells were dug and a small town sprang up around them, but one 
well and some stone buildings are all that remain of the former village. 
This well has been kept in use ever since by the traveling public and 
by the miners at the Bristol mine, a few miles to the east, who haul 
the water for domestic use from here. It is located in a small ditch 
which leads through a gap in a range of hills a short distance to the 
southwest. It is 51 feet deep and in October, 1912, the water stood 
43 feet below the surface. The rock formations that outcrop in the 
hills in the vicinity doubtless act as an underground dam to hold back 
the ground water that sinks into the alluvial slopes at the foot of the 
Ely Range. The quantity of water that the well will furnish is small, 
as is shown by the fact that it is frequently pumped dry by the miners 






COAL VALLEY. 67 

in filling the water tanks which they use in hauling supplies to the 
mine. 

Bailey Spring is situated above the Adams & McGill cattle camp, 
5 i miles northwest of the Bristol well (PL I). It is a small seepage 
spring issuing from bedrock at the top of the alluvial slope and has 
been developed by excavating. The supply, which amounts to only 
about 3 gallons a minute but is of good quality, is led a short distance 
down the slope to the camp. 

Maloy Spring lies 6 miles north of Bailey Spring (PI. I) and is prob- 
ably produced by similar conditions. It was, however, not visited 
by the writer and no authentic data were obtained concerning it. 

Coyote Spring lies about 8 miles southwest of the Bristol well (PI. 
I) and issues from the alluvium above a bed of lava. It flows about 
5 gallons a minute and is used for watering the stock on the range. 
A house and corral have been built near the spring, but neither appears 
to have been used for some time. 

The water for Delamar is piped from Squaw, Baker, Nesbit, and 
Horn springs, which are reported to be small seepages in the limestone 
and granite. When the mine at this place was in active operation the 
water supply was obtained in the Meadow Valley Wash and was 
pumped over the Meadow Valley Range through two 3J-inch pipe 
lines, but these lines are no longer in existence. 

Ground water. — Conditions are not favorable for finding very large 
quantities of ground water in these valleys. It is true that the basin 
is a trough which appears to be incased in bedrock, but the water 
seems to escape to Pahranagat Valley, probably through a fissure or 
along a fault plane in the Hiko Range. No wells are known to have 
been dug in Bristol Valley except the one near the Bristol mine 
(p. 66), and the yield pf this is small. The mine at Delamar, which is 
1,400 feet deep, is totally dry, and a well reported to have been 
drilled 900 feet deep at the foot of the alluvial slope, 1,100 feet lower 
than the mine, is also reported to have been dry. The water that 
sinks into the upper part ,of the alluvial slopes probably finds an outlet 
into the Pahranagat Valley. The analysis of the water from Bristol 
well is given in the table opposite page 30 (analysis 39). It is poor 
for boiler -and domestic uses but has a high alkali coefficient and is 
therefore good for irrigation. 

COAL VALLEY. 

LOCATION AND AREA. 

Coal Valley is an uninhabited trough between the Seaman Range 
on the east and the Golden Gate Range on the west. It is about 25 
miles long and 8 miles wide and contains about 200 square miles of 
valley land. It grades insensibly into Garden Valley through a 
number of gaps in the northern part of the Golden Gate Range. The 



68 GKOUND WATEE IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

roads leading to Cherry Creek from Pioche and Hiko unite at a point 
called Oneota in the west-central part of the valley. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

Coal Valley is bounded on the east by the Seaman Range, which 
rises 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the valley floor, and on the west by the 
Golden Gate Range, which rises to only 1,500 to 2,000 feet above the 
valley. The south boundary is formed by the spur which connects 
Fossil Peak with Pahranagat Range, and the north boundary is 
formed by an alluvial divide between the north ends of the Seaman 
and Golden Gate ranges. The northern part of the Golden Gate 
Range consists of a series of low hills which are entirely detached from 
one another and separated by narrow stretches of valley deposits. 

The most important topographic features in the valley are distinct 
terraces and beaches, which were produced by the waves of an ancient 
lake and which can be plainly seen on all sides of the central flat. 
At its period of greatest extension this lake was about 14 miles long 
and 6 miles wide and covered an area of about 100 square miles. Its 
maximum depth at this period was about 75 feet, and the length of its 
shore line was about 40 miles (PI. I). The ground surrounding these 
shore features extends to higher levels, showing that the lake had no 
outlet and that the water was probably salt. The central part of the 
valley is in general flat and barren . On the western side, where it is 
underlain chiefly by clay, the flat has been extensively carved by the 
wind into a number of shallow basins. There are no mud or alkali 
tracts such as are usually found in closed basins, except a few minor 
holes where surface water stands after heavy rains. 

GEOLOGY. 

The southern part of the Seaman Range is composed of lava and 
volcanic tuff, but the northern part is composed largely of limestone, 
probably of Paleozoic age. The Golden Gate Range is composed 
mainly of limestone which Spurr 1 regarded as Paleozoic in age. The 
valley fill is composed of sand, clay, gravel, and bowlders which have 
been washed from tjie surrounding mountains and which extend to 
an unknown depth below the surface. It is reported that a hole was 
dug at Oneota to a depth of 250 feet without reaching bedrock. 
The material lying witfiin the shore lines is mostly fine clay and sand 
which was deposited in the relatively quiet waters of the lake. This 
lake probably existed in Pleistocene time and was correlative with 
Lake Bonneville. Unconsolidated sediments exposed in the valley 
are Pleistocene and Recent in age, but the underlying sediments may 
be Tertiary. 

1 Spurr, J. E., Descriptive geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 
208, pp. 57-59, 1903. 



GARDEN VALLEY. 69 



VEGETATION. 



The native vegetation in Coal Valley consists chiefly of drought- 
resisting types such as shadscale and white sage. Considerable 
bunch grass is found in the lower part of the basin, but this grass 
would probably soon be destroyed if it were near enough to a water 
supply to be reached by range stock. The mountains bordering the 
valley are practically barren of timber except for a few cedars on the 
pass between Pahranagat and Coal valleys and on the mountains at 
the south end of the valley. 



WATER SUPPLY. 



Coal Valley is one of the driest basins in southeastern Nevada, 
only one small spring being present in an area of about 225 square 
miles. Its present aspect is in strange contrast to what it must have 
been when it contained the Pleistocene lake. 

The absence of alkali flats or seeps proves the absence of shallow 
water, and an excavation at Oneota, only about 50 feet above the 
lowest part of the valley, though reported to be 250 feet deep, failed 
to reveal any ground water. The lowest part of Coal Valley is about 
4,550 feet above sea level, or about 225 feet higher than Pahranagat 
Valley. Any water that might collect in the unconsolidated sedi- 
ments would be likely to find an underground passage through the 
bedrock formations into the unconsolidated material underlying 
Pahranagat Valley, but it would not be expected that the water 
level would be at a lower altitude above sea level in Coal Valley 
than in the adjacent valleys, where the sediments are known to be 
saturated practically to the surface. It seems reasonable to expect 
that deep drilling will reveal the presence of water below some level 
in the unconsolidated sediments, as it has in Dry Lake Valley, which 
is analogously situated. The vicinity of Oneota seems to offer the 
best possibilities of finding water because the run-off from the lofty 
Grant and Quinn Canyon ranges enters the valley in this locality. 

Seaman Spring, which issues from rhyolite in the southwest part 
of the Seaman Range, is the only permanent watering place in the 
valley. It is about 2 miles on an air line north of the pass leading 
into Pahranagat Valley and about 1 mile east of three limestone 
knolls which project through the unconsolidated sediments in the 
southeast part of the valley. It has a discharge of about one-half 
gallon per minute and flows into troughs used for watering stock. 

GARDEN VALLEY. 

GENERAL FEATURES. 

Garden Valley is bordered on the west by the Quinn Canyon, 
Grant, and Worthington ranges, and on the east by Golden Gate 
Range. It drains into Coal Valley through a gap in the Golden Gate 



70 GROUND WATEE IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

Range and is separated from the White River valley on the north 
by only an alluvial divide (PL I) . The valley is properly an alluvial 
slope, which has been formed of debris washed from the mountains. 
On account of the greater altitude of the mountains on the west side 
of the valley, most of the debris has been derived from them, with 
the result that the valley slopes eastward to the Golden Gate Range, 
partly burying it in unconsolidated material. The drainage is thus 
all to the eastward. Cottonwood and Cherry creeks, which head in 
the Quinn Canyon Range (PL I), have carved shallow channels, 
which cross the slope, unite near the east side, and discharge through 
the gap in the Golden Gate Range. 

WATER SUPPLY. 

Surface water. — Garden Valley contains no irrigation supplies, 
except the surface waters of Cherry and Cottonwood creeks. Cherry 
Creek has a flow of about 8 second-feet and Cottonwood Creek a flow 
of about 3 second-feet, but the water is used on the land along the 
stream courses before it reaches the valley proper. In fact, the 
water reaches the lowest part of the valley only during exceptionally 
large floods. 

Ground water. — Conditions are not favorable for finding ground 
water in this valley in very large quantities. The gradient of the 
alluvial slopes precludes the possibility of finding water at shallow 
depths. The Golden Gate Range, which is partly buried in the 
unconsolidated sediments on the east side of the valley, toward which 
the ground waters doubtless flow, should act as an underground bar- 
rier and cause an accumulation of ground waters, unless the'rocks are 
too greatly fractured and fissured, on the Garden Valley side. This 
accumulation should produce an alkali tract in the lowest part of the 
valley, but there is no such alkali tract and no indication at the sur- 
face that shallow water exists beneath the valley. 

The gap through which Cherry and Cottonwood creeks discharge 
is the place where the water from this valley is most likely to escape 
into Coal Valley. It is about one-fourth mile wide and is filled with 
unconsolidated sediments. A well reported to have been dug at 
Oneota, in Coal Valley, only a short distance south of the gap, to a 
depth of 250 feet failed to obtain ground water, indicating that if 
water escapes into Coal Valley through this gap it has not filled the 
sediments to within 250 feet of the surface. 

It may be possible to find some water in Garden Valley along the 
course of Cherry and Cottonwood creeks at shallow depths. Water 
is frequently found in such places at depths much less than on lands 
more remote from the streams. 



GEOUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 71 

DRY LAKE VALLEY. 

TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 

Dry Lake Valley, a small basin with interior drainage lying north- 
east of Las Vegas Valley and traversed by the main line of the San 
Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad, is bounded on the east by 
the Muddy Range and on the west by the Las Vegas Range (PL I). 
The Muddy Range is low, rising only about 2,000 feet above Dry 
Lake Valley, but the Las Vegas Range rises to a height of about 5,000 
feet above the valley, or 7,000 feet above sea level. The Muddy Range 
consists mainly of Paleozoic limestone which dips steeply east; the 
Las Vegas Range is composed of limestone, shale, and quartzite which 
dip west. The southern boundary is formed by a rock divide that 
extends from the Las Vegas Range to the Muddy Range; the north- 
ern boundary, which was not seen at close range, appears also to be 
formed by a ridge of bedrock. The basin is thus apparently inclosed 
by bedrock. The unconsolidated sediments that underlie the valley 
are composed of clay, sand, and gravel. The alluvial slopes grade 
insensibly into the central flat, where a low, level, barren area of 
about 2 square miles forms a play a or "dry lake" which sometimes 
contains a few feet of water. On the west side of the valley some 
low hills project through the valley fill and shut off a gently sloping 
debris-filled basin which drains into the valley. 

VEGETATION. 

The native plants found in Dry Lake Valley are all of the drought- 
resistant type. Creosote is by far the most abundant plant. Con- 
siderable shadscale is interspersed among the creosote, and on the 
higher parts of the alluvial slopes some sagebrush is found. A small 
area surrounding the dry lake is fairly well covered with native 
grasses. 

WATER SUPPLY. 

At present the only water supply in the valley is that developed 
by the railroad company at Dry Lake station, 2J miles east of the 
central flat and 125 feet above it. At this station a well llf inches in 
diameter and 461 feet deep was drilled. The material encountered 
in drilling was mostly clay with some bowlders interspersed. Water 
was found near the bottom and rose only to a level 284 feet below 
the surface, or fully 150 feet below the level of the central flat. The 
well has a capacity of 60 gallons per minute. 

According to a vague report that could not be verified, a well at 
one time dug in the central part of the valley struck water only 60 
feet below the surface. If this report is true, either the water table 
slopes toward the east or a shallow supply above the main body of 



72 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

ground water was struck. Since most of the flood discharge into the 
valley no doubt comes from the lofty mountains on the west side, it 
is not improbable that the ground-water level descends toward the 
east. Nevertheless drilling projects in this valley should be based on 
the assumption that it will be necessary to sink to the level reached 
in the railroad well. The water in the railroad well at Dry Lake is 
corrosive, bad for boiler, only fair for domestic use and irrigation. 
The quality is shown in analysis 40 in the table opposite page 30. 

INDIAN SPRING VALLEY. 

LOCATION. 

Indian Spring Valley lies west of the northern part of the Las 
Vegas Valley, from which it is separated by a low alluvial divide. 
This valley consists of a main part about 30 miles long from north 
to south and 4 to 6 miles wide and an arm that extends westward 
from the south end, thus giving a reversed L-shape to the valley as 
a whole. An alluvial divide at the west end of the arm separates 
the Indian Spring Valley from the Amargosa Desert. The Las 
Vegas & Tonopah Railroad crosses the south end of the valley. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

Indian Spring Valley is bounded on the east by the Pintwater 
Range and on the west by the Spotted Range, these ranges being in 
a sense the northward continuation of the Spring Mountain Range, 
from which they are, however, separated by a debris-covered pass. 
At the north end of the valley these mountains are practically con- 
tiguous, being separated only by a high mountain pass that leads 
into the Emigrant Valley. The Indian Spring Valley is thus practically 
surrounded by mountains, and exhibits all the features of a Great 
Basin valley. The alluvial slopes are smooth and descend almost 
imperceptibly to the valley floor. The central part of the valley is 
low and flat 'and contains ancient shore features which show that it 
was once the bed of a lake. At its greatest extent this lake was 
about 1 8 miles long and 4 miles wide, had a maximum depth of about 
100 feet, and was surrounded by a shore line about 45 miles in total 
length. The northern part of this ancient lake bed is now covered 
by a mud flat or "dry lake," which is at times covered with a few 
feet of water. (See PL I.) 

GEOLOGY. 

The bedrock formations exposed in the mountains surrounding 
this basin consist mainly of Paleozoic limestone, shale, and quartzite. 
The valley has been produced by the faulting of the older rocks, the 
strata in the mountains on each side of the valley having been up- 



INDIAN SPRING VALLEY. 73 

lifted with respect to those underlying the valley. The structure of 
the mountains was not studied except incidentally, but the rocks 
appear to dip away from the valley. 

The unconsolidated sediments underlying the valley consist of 
sand, clay, and gravel. The depth to which they extend is not known, 
but the deepest well, which extends more than 600 feet below the 
surface, appears to end in them. The following log of the Ira Mac- 
Farland well, near Mesquite Springs, gives an adequate notion of 
the composition of the valley fill: 

Log of Ira MacFarland well, three-fourths of a mile east of Mesquite Springs. 



Sediments. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Sand, clay, gravel, and bowlders 

Cemented gravel 

Clay, sand, gravel, and bowlders in alternating layers 6 to 10 feet thick 

Dark clay 

Sand, clay, gravel, and bowlders in alternating layers 6 to 10 feet thick, becoming thin- 
ner with depth 

Water-bearing stratum (water rose to 58 feet from surface) 

Sand, gravel, and bowlders 



Feet. 
55 
23 
32 
18 



230 
'142 



Feet. 
55 
78 
110 
128 

358 
358 
500 



VEGETATION. 



The native vegetation in Indian Spring Valley consists chiefly of 
shadscale and creosote in the southern part and of creosote, yucca, 
and Spanish bayonet in the northern part. The slopes below Indian 
Spring and in the vicinity of Mesquite Springs, where the water 
table lies near the surface, bear a luxuriant growth of mesquite 
and sagebrush. The "dry lake," in the central part of the valley, is 
practically destitute of plants of any kind. 



RAINFALL. 



No rainfall data have been collected in this valley. The yucca 
and Spanish bayonet in the northern part indicate light rainfall. 
The lofty Spring Mountain Range has an important bearing on the 
precipitation in the southern part of the basin. The snow which 
falls on these mountains remains until late in the summer and begins 
accumulating again early in the fall. Storms are reported to gather 
frequently on the north slope of these mountains during the sum- 
mer, and although few of them extend far into the valley they are, 
no doubt, the main source of the ground water in the southern part 
of the valley. 

WATER SUPPLY. 

Springs. — The valley contains a number of springs, one of the 
most important of which is Indian Spring, situated about a mile 
south of the Indian Spring depot. This spring issues from the 



74 GROUND WATEK IK SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

limestone at the foot of a large bluff and has a discharge of 0.91 
second-foot and a temperature of 78° F. Its water is used mainly 
for irrigation on the ranch at the spring, but a part of it is conducted 
through a pipe line to the railroad and is used in locomotives. Sev- 
eral springs at the upper limit of the alluvial slope near the foot of 
the Spring Mountain Range are reported to have large discharges. 
One of these, the Cold Creek Spring, was visited in December, 
1912, and was found to issue from a thick gravel bed, with a dis- 
charge of 1.95 second-feet. The discharge in the spring and early 
summer is reported to be more than twice this amount. 

About 3 miles west of the Indian Spring depot there is a group of 
small springs, which, from the prevalence of mesquite trees, have 
been named Mesquite Springs. They are typical knoll springs, and 
the sandy mounds that mark their locations cover, perhaps, a square 
mile. Only a few of the mounds, however, now yield water, and 
the most copious have a discharge of only a few gallons a minute. 
It is notable that these knolls are directly in line with the large wash 
coming out of the Spring Mountain Range. 

Quartz Spring is about a quarter of a mile from the foot of the 
mountains, in a canyon in the Pintwater Range, at the north end 
of the valley. It issues from quartzite and has a very small dis- 
charge. (See PL I.) 

Wells. — Four wells, ranging from 100 to 700 feet in depth, have 
been drilled in Indian Spring Valley in search of artesian water. 
Their location, depth, and depth to the water level are in part 
shown on Plate I. These wells, although not successful in obtain- 
ing a natural flow, reached water which rose considerably above the 
levels at which it was found. The water rises nearest the surface in 
the tract adjacent to the lofty Spring Mountain Range. 

The water table lies near the surface in the southern end of the 
valley, where three shallow wells have been dug. In a well about 
100 yards west of Indian Spring and close to the foothills that lie 
in this part of the basin the water stands 16 feet below the 
surface. In the drilled well just south of the depot the water stands 
only 11^ feet below the surface, but the water level at this point is 
probably raised by the irrigation of the field just above it. In the 
well just north of the depot the water stands 37.8 feet below the sur- 
face and in the Ira MacCausland well, about one-fourth mile east of the 
depot, the water stances 46.4 feet below the surface. 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

The water in the Indian Spring Valley, as shown by analyses 34 to 38 
in the table opposite page 30, is only moderately mineralized, the total 
solids ranging from 233 to 609 parts per million. Calcium is the most 
abundant base and bicarbonate the most abundant acid radicle. 



RAILROAD VALLEY. 75 

The water is of good quality for domestic use and for irrigation, but it 
deposits considerable scale in boilers. 

IRRIGATION WITH GROUND WATER. 

Over a small area at the south end of the valley the conditions are 
favorable for obtaining water for irrigation by means of pumps, but 
there is little prospect of obtaining irrigation supplies from wells 
north of the isolated hills on the north side of the depot. Conditions 
do not appear favorable for obtaining flowing wells. The catchment 
area along the north side of the Spring Mountain Range is too small 
to supply the necessary head, and most of the water that falls on the 
alluvial slopes is diverted eastward into Las Vegas Valley. 

RAILROAD VALLEY. 

LOCATION AND AREA. 

Railroad Valley is a structural trough lying between Quinn Canyon, 
Grant, and White Pine ranges on the east and Pancake and Reveille 
ranges on the west. It is about 100 miles long and 6 to 20 miles wide. 

This valley and the regions draining into it cover about 6,000 square 
miles. 

The writer spent only a brief time in this valley and saw only a part 
of it. When the field work was done it was not the intention to pre- 
pare a report on this valley, but as the published information in regard 
to it is very meager a brief description of it is given. The area exam- 
ined is the part of the valley between Irwin's ranch and Locke and 
Willow Springs. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The topographic features exhibited in this valley are typical of those 
in the valleys of the Great Basin. The mountains surrounding the 
basin are high and precipitous. The valley proper is smooth and 
regular and has undergone few modifications within recent times. 

There is good evidence that in former geologic times the valley 
held a lake of considerable size. Bars, beaches, and terraces not 
unlike those associated with present lakes are prominently developed. 
When it stood at its highest level the lake was about 75 feet deep and 
covered practically all the lower part of the valley. Locks and Blue 
Eagle Springs were near the shore and the sites of Horton and Irwin 
ranches were probably not more than a mile away from it. The 
locality of the so-called Potash well was covered by about 75 feet of 
water. About 3J miles north of this well a very distinct gravel bar, 
on which the Ely-Tonopah automobile road is now located, was 
built by the waters of the lake. It runs practically straight east and 
west and was probably near the north shore of the lake. The 



76 



GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 



resemblance of this bar to a railroad grade probably suggested the 
name of the valley. 



GEOLOGY. 



The sedimentary rocks exposed in the mountains surrounding the 
basin are probably of Paleozoic age. The strata consists of limestone, 
shale, sandstone, quartzite, and gypsum, which have been modified 
in some places, especially about the Troy mining camps, by the 
interjection of igneous material. 

The valley fill consists of sand, clay, and bowlders which extend 
to an unknown depth. The following log of the Potash well, sunk 
by the Railroad Valley Saline Co., in search of potash, shows the kind 
of material encountered in drilling as reported by the driller. 

Log of Potash well, Railroad Valley. 

Feet. 

Sand with occasional clay layers 1-32 

Quicksand 32-103 

Alternations of quicksand and clay. Artesian water, espe- 

pecially at 128 feet 103-132 

White clay with small seams of fine gravel or coarse quick- 
sand 132-136 

Heavy clay 136-178 

Quicksand. Artesian water 178-214 

Alternations of clay and sand, layers 1 to 10 feet thick. Ar- 
tesian water in most of the sands, especially at 220 and 

250 feet 214-285 

Sand, coarser in upper part. Pebbles 3 to 4 inches in diam- 
eter at 285 feet. Artesian water 285-305 

Tough clay 305-336 

Quicksand with some clay and some small gravel. Artesian 

water 336-340 

Clay, with occasional streaks of quicksand 340-365 

Quicksand with very small streaks of clay. Artesian water 365-375 

Tough gray clay 375-390 

Quicksand. Small artesian flow 390-391 

Tough gray clay 391-418 

Quicksand. Small artesian flow 418-419 

Brown clay 419-429 

Quicksand. Small artesian flow 429-430 

Clay, gray in lower part, changing to brown in upper 430-460 

Quicksand. Artesian water 460-461 

Blue-green clay, with a white layer on top 461-470 

Quicksand. Artesian water 470-471 

Lead-colored clay 471-478 

Very fine sand 478-479 

White and blue-green clays 479-500 

Blue-green clay with some coarse sand , — 500-504 

White and blue-green clays 504-519 

Quicksand. Artesian flow smelling of sulphureted hy- 
drogen 519-520 

Gray clay with occasional sand streaks. Small artesian flows 

in sands. All smell of sulphureted hydrogen 520-529 



RAILROAD VALLEY. 



77 



Feet. 

Gray clay 529-533 

Very fine quicksand 533-534 

Blue-green clay 534-539 

Quicksand with some light-colored clay and some coarse 

gravel. Strong artesian flow 539-541 

Yellowish, white, and blue-green clays 541-560 

Quicksand. Artesian water 560-561 

Blue-green and white clays. . 561-586 

Quicksand. Small artesian flow 586-587 

Clay 587-596 

Alternations of sand and clay, the proportion of sand in- 
creasing downward. Small artesian flow at 605 feet 596-609 

Clay, whiter in upper part 609-637 

Quicksand 637-638 

Tough clay, white and greenish in color 638-676 

Quicksand. Small artesian flow 676-677 

Alternations of clay and sand 677-680 

White clay 680-691 

Alternations of clay and sand 691-700 

Clay, brownish on top 700-719 

Sand 719-720 

Brownish clay 720-738 

Clay and quicksand mixed. Some coarse gravel. Very 

small artesian flows 738-746 

Tough brownish clay 746-759 

Sand alternating with very tough brownish clay. Very 

small artesian flows in the sands 759-771 

Tough brownish clay 771-785 

Quicksand. Artesian flow 785-786 

Clay 786-790 

Sandy streak in clay. Small artesian flow 790-791 

Brownish clay 791-798 

Alternations of clay and sand 798-805 

Clay, hard and brown in lower part 805-816 

Quicksand and gravel. Artesian water. 816-822 

Hard white clay 822-824 

Clay and sand alternating every 2 to 6 inches. Proportion 
of clay increases with depth. Strong artesian flows in 

all sand strata 824-846 

Brownish clay 846-850 

Sand and gravel 850-855 

Rapid alternations of clay and sand 855-865 

Gray clay 865-876 

Coarse gravel. Artesian water 876-878 

Fine sand • 878-882 

Alternations of clay and sand -. 882-899 

Gray clay 899-908 

Sand and gravel. Strong artesian flows 908-924 

Light-gray clay 924-934 

Fine sand 934-941 

Gray clay 941-945 

Sand 945-947 

Clay, yellow on top, gray below 947-967 



78 



GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 



Feet. 

Sand and gravel. Small artesian flow 967-969 

Brown clay, a little sandy in upper part 969-1, 002 

Fine sand. Dry 1, 002-1, 003 

Hard brown clay 1, 003-1, 049 

Brown clay with a few very thin streaks of sand. Sands 

probably dry 1, 049-1, 085 

Tough brown clay 1, 085-1, 131 

Very thin sand streak. Dry , 1, 131 

Brown clay 1, 131-1, 140 

Sand cemented by calcium carbonate and gaylussite 1, 140-1, 144 

Gray clay 1, 144-1, 165 

Rapid alternations of clay and sand 1, 165-1, 175 

Sand cemented by calcium carbonate. Characteristic 

lake-deposited tufa 1, 175-1, 190 

Reddish clay with occasional very thin sand streaks 1, 190-1, 204 

Bottom of hole, in quicksand 1, 204 

VEGETATION. 

No rainfall observations have been made in Railroad Valley, but the 
native vegetation is to some extent an index of the amount of rainfall. 
The alluvial slopes are sparsely covered with shadscale, which is one 
of the most drought-resistant of the desert plants. The lowest part 
of the valley, where the Water table lies near the surface, bears a much 
more luxuriant vegetation, the plants growing from 18 inches to 3 feet 
in height. They consist, however, mainly of greasewood, which will 
grow in soil having a comparatively high content of alkali. Salt grass 
grows abundantly on the slopes below Blue Eagle, Bullwhacker, and 
Willow springs. Quinn Canyon, Grant, and White Pine ranges pro- 
duce an ample growth of mountain timber, but Pancake Range ap- 
pears from a distance to be practically barren of vegetation. 

SOIL. 

The soil on the alluvial slopes is rich, and, where water is available 
for irrigation, produces good crops. No attempt has yet been made 
to farm the central part of the valley. The land between Irwin's 
ranch and the gravel bar does not appear to be strongly impregnated 
with alkali. Samples of the soil near the Potash well of the Rail- 
road Valley Saline Co. and at the gravel bar were analyzed at the 
laboratory of the Nevada experiment station by Dr. S. C. Dinsmore, 
with the following results : 

Analyses of soil from Railroad Valley, Nev. (percentage of total soil). 



No. 


Location. 


First foot. 


Succeeding feet. 


co 3 . 


HC0 3 . 


CI. 


C0 3 . 


HCO3. 


CI. 


1 


Near Potash well 





1.750 
.106 



0.168 
.185 
.753 
.134 

.168 


0.865 

4.746 

25.97 

1.73 

.035 





0.168 


2.948 


?, 


Salt marsh 




3 










4 


Gravel bar 





.084 


.339 


5 

















RAILROAD VALLEY. 



79 



WATER SUPPLY. 



Streams. — The principal streams entering the northern part of the 
valley are Duckwater and Kern creeks. The former was measured 
by engineers of the State engineer's office at Carson, Nev., in 1912, 
when the following discharges were obtained: 

Discharge of Duckwater Creek, 1912. 



Date of 

measurement. 



Place of measurement. 



Discharge. 



Apr. 6. 
Apr. 7. 
Apr. 8. 
Apr. 6. 
Apr. 7. 
Apr. 8. 



Weir No. 2, Stone mill; without overflow of Warm Spring . . . 

Weir No. 2, Stone mill; with overflow of Warm Spring 

Weir No. 2, Stone mill; with overflow of Big Warm Spring. 

Between Warm Spring and works 

At Mendes weir No. 3 

....dO : 



Sec.-ft. 
8.75 
10.37 
18.36 
16.51 
16.10 
16.10 



No measurements have been made of the discharge of Kern Creek, 
but about 500 acres are irrigated with the water which it supplies. 

Ground water. — A large part of Railroad Valley appears to be under- 
lain by shallow water. In the well near Blue Eagle Spring, in which 
the water level is not affected by the spring, the water stands 10 feet 
below the surface, and in the shallow well about three-fourths of a 
mile northwest of the Potash well the water stands 7 feet below the 
surface. In the John Sharp well, about 3 miles south of Blue Eagle 
Spring, the water stands less than 7 feet below the surface. The 
large area of alkali land indicates that the valley is underlain by 
shallow water, and the deep drilling done in search of potash salts 
confirms the indication. In the Potash well several flows of water 
were found. The owners reported that it was drilled to a depth of 
1,204 feet below the surface and that about 25 horizons were found 
from which artesian water issued. 



QUALITY OF WATEK. 



Three samples of water from this valley were analyzed by Dr. 
S. C. Dinsmore. The chemical character of the water is given in 
the table opposite page 30 (Nos. 31 to 33). The total solids range 
from 421 to 590 parts per million. Two of the waters, Nos. 31 and 
33, are poor and the other is only fair for boiler use on account of 
their high content of scaling ingredients. They are fairly good for 
domestic use. Nos. 31 and 33 are of good quality for irrigation. 



80 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 

WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 

RAILROADS AND STAGE CONNECTIONS. 

The following information is given for the benefit of persons who 
are strangers to this region but who for any reason wish to make a 
journey to some part of it. In connection with these directions 
Plates I and II should be consulted. It should be borne in mind, 
however, that the routes of travel are subject to change, and the 
roads in use at this time may not be in use 10 years hence. For 
this reason the traveler should verify the information here given 
from local sources before starting on a long trip over a route on 
which there are few watering places. 

The San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad, commonly 
known as the Salt Lake route, traverses the eastern and southern 
parts of this region. It crosses the Utah-Nevada State line at Uvada, 
and follows Clover Creek to Caliente, thence south along Meadow 
Valley Wash to Moapa, where it turns southwestward, and follows 
in general the old California trail over the Las Vegas Pass into Las 
Vegas Valley and southward. One branch extends northward from 
Caliente to Pioche, and another southward from Moapa to St. Thomas. 

The Las Vegas & Tonopah Railroad extends from Las Vegas to 
Goldfield, where it connects, through the Tonopah & "Goldfield Rail- 
road, with the Southern Pacific system. It passes through the 
northern part of the Las Vegas Valley and the southern part of 
Indian Spring Valley. 

A stage line is operated between Caliente and Delamar, the stage 
leaving Caliente on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and re- 
turning Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. This stage makes 
connections at Delamar with one operated between Delamar and 
Hiko, via Alamo. A stage runs between Moapa and Mesquite, 
leaving Moapa on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and return- 
ing Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. 

MAIN ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 

General considerations. — Any person intending to make a journey 
to an inland point will normally start from some railroad station, 
and the descriptions that follow are given accordingly. Supplies 
and equipment may be obtained at Caliente, Panaca, Pioche, Moapa, 
St. Thomas, and Las Vegas. Most of the so-called stations on the 
railroad are only switches where the trains pass and are without 
inhabitants, water, or shelter. The few inhabited stations, aside 
from the towns mentioned, offer at present no accommodations for 
travelers, and they should therefore not be depended upon for sup- 
plies other than water in emergency. 






WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 81 

Pioche to Ely and Osceola.— From Pioche to Ely or Osceola the 
road traverses Duck Valley and crosses the divide leading into Spring 
Valley 6 miles north of Geyser. At the divide the road forks, 
the right-hand branch leading north to Osceola and the left-hand 
branch to Ely. Several good watering places are to be found along 
the road in the valley near Pioche and one about 30 miles north of 
Pioche near Poney Spring. The next water is at the Wambolt and 
Geyser ranches, 30 miles farther north. The roads north of Geyser 
were not traversed by the writer and information regarding the water- 
ing places should be obtained at this point. 

Pioche to the White River and Railroad valleys. — Two main roads 
run from Pioche to Railroad Valley. The north road leads from 
Pioche to the White River valley and the northern part of Railroad 
Valley. From Pioche it leads northwestward past Royal and 
through Bristol Pass, where it turns west to Bristol well, thence 
northwest through Silver King Pass and into the south end of the 
White River valley, where it forks, one branch leading up the east 
side of the valley past Sunnyside, Emigrant Spring, Lund, Preston, 
and Barnes, and the other branch to Hot Creek ranch and beyond. 
From Barnes a road leads southwestward through the pass between 
White Pine and Grant ranges to Currant post office and other points. 
A road also runs directly from Emigrant Spring to Currant post 
office. 

This north road from Pioche to Railroad Valley is favored with 
watering places. On the way to the White River valley water can 
be obtained at Bristol well, which is on the main road, and by 
making short detours, at Bailey Spring and Silver King well. In 
the White River valley water can be obtained at Sunnyside and 
at each of the places mentioned above. Water can also be had at 
several places in Railroad Valley. 

The south road from Pioche to Railroad Valley crosses Stampede 
Gap about 10 miles west of Pioche, thence leads to Coyote Spring, 
in Bristol Valley, and thence southwestward across the Pahroc 
Range into the White River valley. In the ancient river channel 
of White River this road is joined from the south by a road from 
Hiko. It leads up the old river course about 10 miles, turns west- 
ward, crosses the Seaman Range and Coal and Garden valleys, and 
leads to Sharp post office. From Sharp the road leads up Cherry 
Creek across the pass between Quinn Canyon and Grant ranges and 
into Railroad Valley. 

The only watering places along this road are at Coyote Spring and 
Sharp post office. If one is making the trip with a heavy load he 
will find it necessary to carry water between these two points. By 
going south on the Hiko road about 12 miles in the White River 
valley, White Rock Spring may be reached. This is a small seep 
50014°— wsp 365—15—6 



82 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 






about a mile west of the road in the head of the canyon issuing from 
Seaman Range. 

Pioche to Delamar, Hiko, and Alamo.— h\ going from Pioche to 
Hiko'and Alamo one has a choice of three roads for part of the trip. 
One may go (1) by Bristol Pass, Bristol well, and Coyote Spring, 
and thence south through Bristol Valley, or (2) west through Stam- 
pede Gap, or (3) south across Pioche Range to Bennetts Spring and 
thence west through the pass between the Highland and Meadow 
Valley ranges and across Bristol Valley. These three roads unite at 
the south end of Pahroc Range, west of Bristol Valley, where the 
road turns west, crossing Pahroc Valley and the Hiko Range to Hiko. 
Alamo is 18 miles south of Hiko. The road from Pioche to Delamar 
passes Bennetts Spring and crosses the divide west of the Highland 
and Meadow Valley ranges. The road forks on top of the ridge, the 
right fork leading to Comet Canyon, the middle to Bristol Valley 
and Hiko, and the left fork southward to Delamar. One may, how- 
ever, go into Bristol Valley and follow a road southward along the 
east side of the valley to Delamar. 

The only watering places between Pioche and Hiko are at Bennetts, 
Bristol, Coyote, and Pahroc springs. Pahroc Spring is not on the 
main road, but is reached by a branch road about a mile long. (See 
PI. I.) Water may be obtained on the eastern road to Delamar at 
Bennetts Spring, which is 13 miles from Pioche; at Cliff Spring, 17 
miles from Bennetts; and at Grassy Spring, 13 miles from Cliff Spring. 
The western road to Delamar has no watering places after leaving 
Bennetts Spring. (See table of distances, p. 84.) 

Caliente to Delamar, Alamo, and Hiko.— The road from Caliente to 
Delamar crosses the Meadow Valley Range and follows the west face 
of these mountains to Delamar. Water may be obtained at Oak 
Spring and Grassy Spring, which are nearly midway between Cali- 
ente and Delamar. 

The road from Delamar to Alamo extends about 24 miles westward 
across Delamar Valley and the Hiko Range. There are no watering 
places along this road. 

The road from Caliente to Hiko is the same as that to Delamar to a 
point near Oak Spring, where the road forks, the right-hand road 
running northwestward across the north end of Delamar Valley past 
Pahroc Spring, where it joins the road between Hiko and Pioche. 
Water can be obtained at Oak and Pahroc springs. 

Hiko to Sharp post office and Railroad Valley.— -The road from Hiko 
to Sharp post office leads up the valley 12 miles, and after passing 
through a rock canyon of the ancient White River it forks, the left 
branch turning to the northwest through the pass between Fossil 
Peak and Seaman Range into Coal Valley, and the right fork follow- 



WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 83 

ing up the White River valley past White Rock Spring and north 
to Sunnyside. The Coal Valley road forks on the divide at the south 
end of Coal Valley, the right fork leading north across the east side 
of Coal Valley near Seaman Spring and north into White River val- 
ley, and the left fork leading northwest across Coal Valley past 
Oneota, where it turns westward, passing through a gap in the Golden 
Gate Range into Garden Valley, and runs to Sharp post office. The 
only water between Hiko and Sharp is at the Seaman Spring, where 
a small but reliable supply can be obtained. This is at the west pass 
of the Seaman Range and is in plain view from the valley. It is a 
short distance east of the east fork and several miles east of the west 
fork, but can be reached by several branches from both roads, as 
shown on Plate I. 

From Sharp the road follows up Cherry Creek to the pass between 
Quinn Canyon and Grant ranges, thence northwest into Railroad Val- 
ley. Water may be obtained at Bardoli's ranch and at the Crows 
Nest Springs, where the road turns northward to Blue Eagle Spring. 

Moapa to Alamo and Hiko. — The road from Moapa to Alamo and 
Hiko runs up Muddy Valley, Coyote Spring Valley, and Pahranagat 
Valley. The only water between Baldwin's ranch and Pahranagat 
Valley is at Coyote Spring. 

Moapa to Bunkerville and Mesquite. — The road from Moapa to 
Bunkerville and Mesquite crosses the Mesa between Muddy and 
Virgin rivers. There are no watering places between Moapa and 
Bunkerville. 

DISTANCES BETWEEN WATERING PLACES. 

The following table gives the distances, in miles, between the chief 
watering places in southeastern Nevada. Some of the roads were 
not traversed and the distances given are only approximate. 



84 



GROUND WATER IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA. 






Si, 





Alamo. 
Barnes. 
Bennett Spring. 

Bristol well. 

Caliente. 

Carp. 

Corn Creek Spring. 
Coyote Spring, Bristol Valley. 
Coyote Spring, Coyote Spring 
Valley. 

Currant. 
Delamar. 
Dry Lake. 

Geyser. 
Hiko. 
Las Vegas. 

Logan. 
Lund. 
Mesquite. 

Moapa. 
Overton. 
Pahroc Spring. 

Pioche. 


Seaman Spring. 

Sharp post office. 
Silver King well. 
Sunnyside. 


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INDEX. 



Alamo, road from Moapa to .83 

roads from Pioche and Caliente to 82 

Analyses of soils 36, 37, 78 

of water 30 

Artesian water supply, conditions governing. 22-23 

Artesian wells, construction and cost of 40 

B. 

Barnsley's flowing well, plate showing 40 

Boilers, water for, fitness of 27-28 

Bristol Valley, description of 65-66 

ground water in, possibilities of 67 

water supply of 66-67 

Bunkerville, road from Moapa to 83 

C. 

Clark County Land Co., log of well of 35 

Coal Valley, description of 67-69 

water supply of 69 

D. 

Delamar, roads from Pioche and Caliente to. . 82 

Delamar Valley, description of 65-66 

ground water in, possibilities of 67 

water supply of 66-67 

Dinsmore, S. C, analyses of soils by 36,37,78 

Dole, R. B., cited 27 

Domestic use, water for, fitness of 28-29 

Drainage of the area examined 9-10 

Dry Lake Valley, description of 71 

water supply of 71-72 

Duck Valley, geology of 44-45 

industrial development in 45 

location and topography of 43-44 

vegetation in 45 

water supplies in 45-47 

E. 

Eglington's flowing well, plate showing 40 

Ely, road from Pioche to 81 

G. 

Garden Valley, description of 69-70 

water supply of 70 

Geology of the area examined 14-17 

H. 

Harmes, Herman, analysis by 37 

Hiko, Nev., entrance to stream channel north 

of, plate showing 52 

road from Moapa to 83 

roads from Pioche and Caliente to 82 



Page. 

Indian Spring Valley, description of 72-73 

water supply of 73-75 

Industrial development o f the area examined . 13-14 
Irrigation, water for, fitness of 29-30 

L. 

Lakes, deposits made by 21 

Las Vegas Artesian Water syndicate, logs of 

wells of. 34 

Las Vegas drainage basin, bedrock formations 

in 32-33 

climate of 38-39 

ground water in 39-43 

irrigation in 41-43 

location and topography of 31-32 

soil of .' 36-37 

valley fill in 33-35 

vegetation in 36 

wells in 39-41, 42-43 

Las Vegas VaUey, map of 32 

Logan, Nev., monthly precipitation and 

temperature at 60 

M. 

Meadow Valley, description of 49-50 

water supplies of 50-51 

Meadow Valley canyon, description of 51-52 

unconformity in, plate showing 52 

water supply of 52-53 

Meadow Valley drainage basin, divisions and 

features of 43-53 

Meinzer, O. E., cited 25 

Mesquite, road from Moapa to 83 

Muddy Valley, description of 58-60 

industrial development in 60-61, 64 

water supply of 61-64 

N. 

Nevada, map of 8 

southeastern, map of In pocket. 

O. 
Osceola, road from Pioche to 81 

P. 

Pahranagat Valley, plate showing 54 

Potash Well, Railroad Valley, log of 76-78 

R. 

Railroad Valley, geology of 76-78 

location and topography of 75-76 

water supply of 79 

road from Hiko to 82-83 

road from Pioche to 81-82 

85 



86 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Railroads and stage connections 80 

Rainfall of the area examined 17-18 

S. 

Sediments, character of 20-21 

Sharp, road from Hiko to 82-83 

Soils from Las Vegas, analyses of 37 

from Railroad Valley, analyses of 78 

Spring Mountain, sections across, figure 

showing 33 

Springs, types of 23-26 

Spurr, J. E., cited 10, 35 

Stabler, Herman, cited 29-30 

Streams, deposits made by 20-21 

T. 

Topography of the area examined 10-13 

U. 

Ursine Valley, description of 48-49 

water supply of 49 



V. Page. 

Valley fill, character of 20-21 

Vegetation of the area examined 13 

Virgin River drainage basin, divisions and 

features of 43-64 

Virgin Valley, description of 58-60 

industrial development in 61 

water supply of 62-64 

W. 

Water, occurrence of, in bedrock 18-20 

occurrence of, in unconsolidated sedi- 
ments 20-21 

substances dissolved in 26 

Water table, position of 21-22 

Watering places, distances between 83-84 

Wheeler, G. M., cited 10 

White River drainage basin, geology of 55 

ground-water prospects in 57-58 

location and topography of .,. 53-54 

water in, quality of 57 

water supply of 55-56 

White River valley, road from Pioche to 81-82 



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